Imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion fluorophores, and methods of making and using the same

ABSTRACT

A fluorophore and methods of detecting cations and hydrophobic environments using the fluorophore are disclosed. The fluorophore includes an imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion core and has the formula 
                         
where R 1 , R 2 , R 3  and X −  are as defined in the specification, and n is an integer from 1 to 4.

GOVERNMENT INTERESTS

This invention was made with United States government support undergrant number W911NF-07-1-0533 awarded by the Department of Defense. Thefederal government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

The invention relates to preparing imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ionfluorophores and detecting cations and hydrophobic components.

Small molecule fluorophores are becoming important tools for visualizinganalytes of biological relevance. Quantitative data about the analytesis often obtained by detecting changes in the fluorescence emission ofselect probe molecules that bind them, which can result fromphotoinduced electron transfer (PET) or intramolecular charge transfer(ICT). The fluorophores that are often used for these analyses areBODIPY, coumarin, naphthalimide, and fluorescein. Although thesefluorophores theoretically can be modified to display either aratiometric dual-emission response through ICT, or a change influorescence intensity through PET, modifying the structure of thesecompounds to selectively control the excited-state photophyscialproperties of these compounds typically requires multi-step syntheticoperations that result in low yields.

For fluorescent probes to operate successfully and universally in abiological system, the probe must exhibit water solubility,insensitivity to local polarity, and minimal interference frombackground emission. These requirements are difficult to achieve.

SUMMARY

In one aspect, the invention features a fluorophore that includes acompound that includes an imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion core and havingthe formula

wherein R₁ is alkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, glycoalkyl, haloalkyl, heteroaryl,heterocyclyl, or cycloalkyl, and when R₁ is aryl, heteroaryl,heterocyclyl, or cycloalkyl, R₁ optionally is substituted with at leastone R₄,

R₂ is H, alkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, carbonyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy,ether, thioether, halogen, haloalkyl, heteroaryl, or heterocyclyl, andwhen R₂ is aryl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl or cycloalkyl, R₂ optionallyis substituted with at least one R₄,

R₃ is

H, alkyl, alkoxy, alkenyl alkenoxy, alkynyl, alkynoxy, amide, amidino,amine, aryl, arylalkyl, azido, azo, carbamate, carbamide, carbonyl,carboxamido, carboxy, cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, ether, thioether,halogen, haloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl, hydrazine, imino, nitro,phosphate, sulfate, sulfonamide, sulfonyl, sulfide, or thiocarbonyl, andwhen R₃ is alkenyl, alkenoxy, alkynyl, alkynoxy, aryl, heteroaryl,heterocyclyl or cycloalkyl, R₃ optionally is substituted with at leastone R₄,

each R₄ is independently H, alkyl, alkoxy, alkenyl, alkenoxy, alkynyl,alkynoxy, amide, amidino, amino, aryl, arylalkyl, azido, azo, carbamate,carbamide, carbonyl, carboxamido, carboxy, cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy,cyano, ether, thioether, halogen, haloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl,hydrazine, imino, nitro, phosphate, sulfate, sulfonamide, sulfonyl,sulfide, or thiocarbonyl,

each R₅ is independently H, aryl, heteroaryl, ether, thioether, alkyl,alkenyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, haloalkyl, heteroaryl, or heterocyclyl,and when R₅ is alkenyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl or cycloalkyl, R₅optionally is substituted with at least one R₄,

X⁻ is a counter ion, and n is an integer from 1 to 4, the compoundincluding at least one substituent that includes a heteroatom thatincludes at least one pair of electrons conjugated to theimidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion core, an aryl that includes a substituentthat includes at least one pair of electrons conjugated to the aryl,

an alkenyl, an alkynyl, or a combination thereof, and when R₁ includesphenylalkoxy or phenylcyano, at least one of R₂ and R₃ is other than H.

In one embodiment, R₁ is C₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄alkoxy, or phenylC₁₋₄ dialkylamine, R₂ is H, C₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkoxy, or phenylC₁₋₄ dialkylamine, and R₃ is H, C₁₋₄alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC_(j4) alkoxy, or phenylC₁₋₄dialkylamine. In another embodiment, R₅ is

each Z is independently CH or N, and each R₆ is independently alkyl,alkoxy, amine, aryl, heteroaryl, halo, haloalkyl, hydrogen, nitro,carboxy, ester, ether, thioether, phosphate, sulfate, sulfonamide,sulfonyl, sulfide, or thiocarbonyl, optionally substituted with at leastone R₄.

In other embodiments, at least one of R₁, R₂ and R₃ is phenyl(diaceticacid)amine, phenyl(dimethylpyridyl)amine,phenyl(methylpyridyl)(methylthiophene)amine, a phenyl substituted with acrown ether or a phenyl substituted with an aza crown ether.

In some embodiments, the compound exhibits a change in the intensity ofthe fluorescence emitted, a change in the wavelength of fluorescenceemitted or a combination thereof in response to the presence of acation.

In other embodiments, the compound binds at least two different cations.

In another embodiment, the compound has the formula

In one embodiment, R₁ is C₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄alkoxy, or phenylC₁₋₄ dialkylamine, R₂ is H, C₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkoxy, or phenylC₁₋₄ dialkylamine, and R₃ is H, C₁₋₄alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkoxy, or phenylC₁₋₄ dialkylamine.

In another aspect, the invention features a cation sensor that includesa fluorophore disclosed herein. In one embodiment, the cation sensorincludes a fluorophore disclosed herein in which the compound includes afirst substituent that includes at least one of a heteroatom thatincludes at least one pair of electrons conjugated to theimidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion core, and an aryl that includes a secondsubstituent that includes a heteroatom that includes at least one pairof electrons conjugated to the aryl.

In other aspects, the invention features a method of detecting a cationin a sample, the method including contacting the sample with a cationsensor, exposing the sample to radiation, and monitoring thefluorescence emission of the sample, the cation sensor including acompound that includes an imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion core and havingthe formula

wherein R₁, R₂, R₃, X⁻, n (and R₄ and R₅, where present) are as definedherein, and where at least one substituent includes a heteroatom thatincludes at least one pair of electrons conjugated to theimidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion core, an aryl that includes a secondsubstituent that includes a heteroatom that includes at least one pairof electrons conjugated to the aryl or a combination thereof.

In one embodiment, when fluorescence emission is detected, the methodfurther includes correlating the presence of fluorescence emission withat least one of the presence of a cation in the system, the location ofa cation in the system, the concentration of a cation in the system, andthe identity of a cation in the system.

In another embodiment, the method is a method of determining the pH ofan aqueous system, the cation is a proton, and the method furtherincludes correlating the emitted fluorescence to the pH of the system.

In other aspects, the invention features a compound of the formula

wherein R₁, R₂, R₅, and X⁻ (and R₄, where present) are as definedherein. In some embodiments, R₁ is aryl. In other embodiments, R₅ and R₁are aryl and at least one of R₁ and R₅ is arylamine. In otherembodiments, R₅ is arylamine and R₁ is arylamine.

In some embodiments, the compound has the formula

In one embodiment, R₁ is aryl. In some embodiments, R₅ and R₁ are aryland at least one of R₁ and R₅ is arylamine. In another embodiment, R₁ isarylamine. In other embodiments, R₅ and R₁ are arylamine.

In other aspects, the invention features a method of detecting ahydrophobic component, a hydrophobic environment, or a combinationthereof, the method including contacting a sample with a compounddisclosed herein (e.g., a triazole-containing compound or an arylaminesubstituted triazole-containing compound), exposing the sample toradiation, and monitoring the fluorescence emission of the sample. Insome embodiments, the method further includes correlating the emittedfluorescence to the hydrophobicity of the environment (e.g., a system).

In another aspect, the invention features a method of making afluorophore, the method including combining alkynyl substituted2-acylpyridine, primary amine, a formaldehyde component, and acid toform a first reaction product, and combining an azide and the firstreaction product in the presence of a copper catalyst to form antriazole-substituted imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion.

In other aspects, the invention features a method of determining aproperty of a system, the method including contacting the system with afluorophore that includes a compound that includes animidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion core and has the formula

wherein R₁, R₂, R₃, X⁻, and n (and R₄ and R₅, where present) are asdefined herein, exposing the system to radiation, and monitoring thefluorescence emission of the system. In one embodiment, whenfluorescence emission is detected, the method further includescorrelating the wavelength of fluorescence emission with at least one ofthe presence of a cation in the system, the location of a cation in thesystem, the concentration of a cation in the system, the identity of acation in the system, and the presence of a hydrophobic component in thesystem.

In one embodiment, the method of detecting a change in a system furtherincludes detecting a change in at least one of the intensity of thefluorescence emission and the wavelength of fluorescence emission. Insome embodiments, an increase in the intensity of the fluorescenceemission indicates at least one of the presence of a cation in thesystem and an increase in the concentration of a cation in the system.

In another embodiment, the invention features a method of stainingtissue, the method including contacting a tissue with a compounddisclosed herein, exciting the compound with radiation, and detectingthe fluorescence emitted by the tissue.

In one embodiment, the fluorophores, the cation sensors, the methodsdisclosed herein or a combination thereof includes or uses2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumhexafluorophosphate, 2-butyl-1-(p-tolyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtertraphenylborate,2-butyl-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-ium chloride,2-butyl-1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(dimethylamino)-2,6-diisopropylphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,5-(1-benzyl-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-butyl-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,2-butyl-5-(1-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,5-(1-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-(p-tolyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,5-(1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-(p-tolyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,5-(1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,5-(1-(4-((diethylamino)methyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-5-ethynyl-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride, 2-butyl-5-ethynyl-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-ium chloride,2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-ethynyl-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,5-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,2-butyl-5-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-3-(pyridin-2-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumhydrogensulfate, 1-phenyl-2-(p-tolyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumhexafluorophosphate,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumhydrogensulfate,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(p-tolyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride, and2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(p-tolyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-butyl-5-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,5-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate, or a combination thereof.

The invention features compounds that have a variety of uses including,e.g., as fluorophores, for detecting cations (e.g., hydrogen ions andmetal ions), for detecting hydrophobic environments, for detectinghydrophobic components, and combinations thereof.

The invention also features a versatile, one pot method of synthesizinga wide variety of triazole substituted imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ioncompounds.

Other features and advantages will be apparent from the followingdescription of the drawings, the preferred embodiments, and from theclaims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A is a plot of the fluorescence emission spectrum of 30 μMCompound 6 in acetonitrile prior to (i) and after (ii) the addition of60 mM trifluoroacetic acid, and after (iii) the addition of 90 mM1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene.

FIG. 1B is a plot of the fluorescence emission spectrum of 30 μMCompound 7 in acetonitrile prior to (i) and after (ii) the addition of60 mM trifluoroacetic acid, and after (iii) the addition of 90 mM1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene.

FIG. 2A is a plot of the fluorescence emission spectrum of 30 μMCompound 6 in a series of buffered water solutions having a pH of from2.5 to 7.5.

FIG. 2B is a plot of the fluorescence emission spectrum of 30 μMCompound 7 in a series of buffered water solutions having a pH of from2.5 to 7.5.

FIG. 3A is a plot of fluorescence intensity of Compound 6 at 400 nmversus pH.

FIG. 3B is a plot of fluorescence intensity of Compound 6 at 580 nmversus pH.

FIG. 4 is a plot of fluorescence intensity of 30 μM Compound 7 at 450 nmversus pH.

FIG. 5A is a plot of the fluorescence emission spectrum of 10 μMCompound 2 in water having a pH of 7.5 and in water having a pH of 2.5.

FIG. 5B is a plot of the fluorescence emission spectrum of 5 μM Compound8 in water having a pH of 7.5 and in water having a pH of 2.5.

FIG. 6A is a plot of the fluorescence emission of Compound 8 in neatacetonitrile.

FIG. 6B is a plot of the fluorescence emission of Compound 2 in water.

FIG. 7A is a plot of the fluorescence emission spectrum of Compound 10in neat acetonitrile and with incrementally increasing amounts oftrifluoroacetic acid.

FIG. 7B is a plot of the fluorescence emission spectrum of Compound 10in acetonitrile with increasing pH.

FIG. 7C is a plot of the emission intensity of Compound 10 at 580 nm(left ordinate) versus the log of the volume of trifluoroacetic acid inμL and at 400 nm (right ordinate) versus the log of the volume oftrifluoroacetic acid in μL.

FIG. 8A is a plot of the fluorescence emission intensity versuswavelength of Compound 12 in buffered water solutions having a pH offrom 2.5 to 7.5.

FIG. 8B is a plot of the fluorescence emission intensity versuswavelength of Compound 12 in acetonitrile with increasing acidconcentration.

FIG. 9A is a plot of the fluorescence intensity versus wavelength ofCompound 12 in water and with the addition of acetonitrile in amountsfrom 0 volume to volume (v/v) % to 100 v/v % in increments of 10 v/v %.

FIG. 9B is a plot of the fluorescence intensity of Compound 12 at 600 nmversus acetonitrile concentration in water as the concentration wasincreased in increments of 10 v/v %.

GLOSSARY

In reference to the invention, these terms have the meanings set forthbelow:

The term “C” followed by a number or a range of numbers refers to agroup having the designated number of carbon atoms or having any numberof carbon atoms in the designated range of numbers.

The term “alkoxy” means an alkyl group, an alkenyl group or an alkynylgroup attached to an oxygen atom. Alkoxy groups include substituted andunsubstituted alkoxy groups including, e.g., methoxy, ethoxy, vinyloxy,allyloxy, and butenoxy.

The term “alkyl” means a saturated straight or branched hydrocarbongroup. Alkyl groups include substituted and unsubstituted alkyl groupsincluding, e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, 2-methyl-1-propyl,2-methyl-2-propyl, 2-methyl-1-butyl, 2-methyl-3-butyl,2,2-dimethyl-1-propyl, 2-methyl-1-pentyl, 3-methyl-1-pentyl,4-methyl-1-pentyl, 2-methyl-2-pentyl, 3-methyl-2-pentyl,4-methyl-2-pentyl, 2,2-dimethyl-1-butyl, 3,3-dimethyl-1-butyl,2-ethyl-1-butyl, butyl, isobutyl, t-butyl, pentyl, isopentyl, neopentyl,hexyl, heptyl, and octyl.

The term “alkenyl” means an unsaturated alkyl group having at least onedouble bond. Alkenyls include substituted and unsubstituted alkenylgroups including, e.g., C₂₋₆ alkenyls including, e.g., vinyl, allyl,1-propenyl, isopropenyl, 2-butenyl, 2-pentenyl, 2-hexenyl, andsubstituted C₂₋₄ alkenyls.

The term “alkynyl” means an unsaturated alkyl group having at least onetriple bond. Alkynyl groups include substituted and unsubstitutedalkynyl groups including, e.g., ethynyl, propynyl, butynyl, pentynyl,hexynyl, methylpropynyl, 4-methyl-1-butynyl, 4-propyl-2-pentynyl, and4-butyl-2-hexynyl.

The terms “amide” and “amido” mean a group of the form —R¹C(O)N(R¹)—,R¹C(O)N(R¹)R¹—, or —C(O)N(R¹)₂, where each R¹ is independently selectedfrom alkoxy, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amide, amino, aryl, arylalkyl,carbonyl, cycloalkyl, ether, haloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl, andhydrogen. An amide can be attached to another group through the carbon,the nitrogen, or at least one R¹. An amide can be cyclic, e.g., at leasttwo R¹'s can be joined to form a 3- to 12-membered ring, a 3- to10-membered ring or even a 5- to 6-membered ring. The term “carboxamido”refers to the structure —C(O)N(R¹)₂.

The term “amidino” means a group of the form —C(═NR²)N(R²)₂ where eachR² is independently selected from alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl,arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, haloalkyl, heteroaryl, and heterocyclyl.

The terms “amine” and “amino” mean a group of the form —N(R³)₂,—N(R³)R³—, or —R³N(R³)R³— where each R³ is independently selected fromalkoxy, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amide, aryl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl,ether, haloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl, hydrogen, and hydroxyl. Anamino group can be attached to the parent molecular group through thenitrogen or at least one R³. An amino group can be cyclic, for example,any two of the R³'s can be joined together or with the N to form a 3- to12-membered ring, e.g., morpholino or piperidinyl. The term amino alsoincludes the corresponding quaternary ammonium salt of any substitutedor unsubstituted amino group, e.g., —[N(R³)₃]+. Amino groups include,e.g., aminoalkyl groups where at least one R³ is an alkyl group.

The term “aryl” means a carbocyclic single or multiple aromatic ringsystem. The aromatic ring can be substituted at at least one ringposition with substituents that include, e.g., alkanoyl, alkoxy, alkyl,alkenyl, alkynyl, amido, amidino, amino, aryl, arylalkyl, azido, azo,carbamate, carbamide, carbonate, carbonyl, carboxy, cyano, cycloalkyl,ester, ether, formyl, halogen, haloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl,hydrazine, hydroxyl, imino, ketone, nitro, phosphate, phosphonato,phosphinato, sulfate, sulfide, sulfonamido, sulfonyl and thiocarbonyl.The term “aryl” also includes polycyclic ring systems having at leasttwo cyclic rings in which at least two carbons are common to twoadjoining rings (the rings are “fused rings”) wherein at least one ofthe rings is aromatic, e.g., the other cyclic rings can be cycloalkyls,cycloalkenyls, cycloalkynyls, aryls, and combinations thereof. Arylgroups include, e.g., phenyl, tolyl, anthracenyl, fluorenyl, indenyl,azulenyl, and naphthyl, as well as benzo-fused carbocyclic moieties suchas 5,6,7,8-tetrahydronaphthyl.

The term “arylalkyl” means an aryl group having at least one alkylsubstituent. Arylalkyl groups include substituted and unsubstitutedarylalkyl groups including, e.g., arylalkyls having a monocyclicaromatic ring system in which the ring includes 6 carbon atoms.

The term “azido” means the group —N₃.

The term “azo” means the group —N═N—R⁴ where R⁴ is selected from alkyl,alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, arylalkyl, carbonyl, cycloalkyl, ether,haloalkyl, heteroaryl and heterocyclyl.

The term “carbamide” means the group —N(R⁵)—(CO)N(R⁵)₂ where each R⁵ isindependently selected from alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, arylalkyl,cycloalkyl, carbonyl, ether, haloalkyl, heteroaryl and heterocyclyl.

The term “carbamate” means a group of the form —R⁶OC(O)N(R⁶)—,—R⁶OC(O)N(R⁶)R⁶—, or —OC(O)N(R⁶)₂, where each R⁶ is independentlyselected from alkoxy, aryloxy, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, arylalkyl,cycloalkyl, ether, formyl, haloalkyl, heteroaryl, and heterocyclyl.Carbamates include, e.g., arylcarbamates and heteroaryl carbamates,e.g., where at least one R⁵ is independently selected from aryl (e.g.,phenyl) and heteroaryl (e.g., pyridinyl).

The term “carbonyl” means the group —C(O)—R⁷, where R⁷ is selected fromalkoxy, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amide, amidino, aryl, arylalkyl,carbamate, carbonyl, carboxy, cyano, cycloalkoxy, cycloalkyl, ether,glycoalkyl, halo, haloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl, heterocycloalkyl,heterocyclylalkoxy, heterocyclyloxyalkyl, hydrogen, hydroxyl,hydroxyalkyl, hydrazine, azo, carbamide, imino, sulfide, andthiocarboxy.

The term “carboxy” means the group —COOH and its corresponding salts,e.g. —COONa.

The term “cyano” means the group —CN.

The term “cycloalkoxy” means a cycloalkyl group attached to an oxygenatom.

The term “cycloalkyl” means a monovalent saturated or partiallyunsaturated cyclic, bicyclic, or bridged bicyclic hydrocarbon group.Cycloalkyl groups include substituted and unsubstituted cycloalkylgroups including, e.g., cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cycloentyl, cyclohexyl,cycloheptyl, cyclooctyl, cyclo nonyl, cyclodecyl, cyclododecyl,cyclohexanes, cyclohexenes, cyclopentanes, cyclopentenes, cyclobutanesand cyclopropanes. Cycloalkyl groups can be substituted with alkanoyl,alkoxy, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amido, amidino, amino, aryl, arylalkyl,azido, azo, carbamate, carbamide, carbonate, carbonyl, carboxy, cyano,cycloalkyl, ester, ether, formyl, halogen, haloalkyl, heteroaryl,heterocyclyl, hydrazine, hydroxyl, imino, ketone, nitro, phosphate,phosphonato, phosphinato, sulfate, sulfide, sulfonamido, sulfonyl andthiocarbonyl. Cycloalkyl groups can be fused to other cycloalkyl, aryl,or heterocyclyl groups.

The term “ether” means a group having the structure —R⁸O—R⁸—, where eachR⁸ is independently selected from alkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heterocyclyl,and ether. The ether can be attached to the parent molecular groupthrough at least one R⁷. Ethers include substituted and unsubstitutedethers including, e.g., alkoxyalkyl groups, alkoxyaryl groups, crownethers, and aza crown ethers (e.g., monoaza crown ethers, diaza crownethers and triaza crown ethers). Ethers also include polyethers, e.g.,where at least one R⁸ is an ether.

The term “glycoalkyl” means acyclic and cyclic mono- andpolysaccharides. The glycoalkyl is attached to the parent moleculargroup through an available oxygen atom forming an ether linkage.

The terms “halo” and “halogen” mean fluorine, chlorine, bromine oriodine.

The term “haloalkyl” means an alkyl group substituted with at least onehalogen atom.

The term “heteroaryl” means a mono- or multi-cyclic aromatic ring systemcontaining at least one heteroatom. Heteroaryls can also be fused tonon-aromatic rings. Heteroaryl groups include substituted andunsubstituted heteroaryl groups including, e.g., acridinyl,benzimidazolyl, benzofuryl, benzothiazolyl, benzothienyl, benzoxazolyl,carbazolyl, carbolinyl, cinnolinyl, furazanyl, furyl, imidazolyl,indazolyl, indolizinyl, indolyl, isobenzofuryl, isoindolyl,isoquinolinyl, isothiazolyl, isoxazolyl, naphthyridinyl, oxadiazolyl,oxazolyl, phenanthridinyl, phenanthrolinyl, phenarsazinyl, phenazinyl,phenothiazinyl, phenoxazinyl, phthalazinyl, pteridinyl, purinyl,pyrazinyl, pyrazolyl, pyrazyl, pyridazinyl, pyridinyl, pyrimidilyl,pyrimidyl, pyrrolyl, quinolinyl, quinolizinyl, quinoxalinyl,quinoxaloyl, quinazolinyl, tetrazolyl, thiadiazolyl, thianthrenyl,thiazolyl, thienyl, thiophenyl, triazinyl, (1,2,3)- and(1,2,4)-triazolyl. The heteroaryl ring can be substituted at at leastone position with such substituents as described above including, e.g.,alkanoyl, alkoxy, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amido, amidino, amino, aryl,arylalkyl, azido, azo, carbamate, carbamide, carbonate, carbonyl,carboxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, ester, ether, formyl, halogen, haloalkyl,heteroaryl, heterocyclyl, hydrazine, hydroxyl, imino, ketone, nitro,phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, sulfate, sulfide, sulfonamido,sulfonyl and thiocarbonyl.

The term “heteroatom” means an atom that is other than carbon orhydrogen. Examples of heteroatoms include N, O, S, and P.

The terms “heterocyclyl” and “heterocyclic group” mean saturated andpartially unsaturated ring structures that include from one to fourheteroatoms. Heterocyclyls include substituted and unsubstitutedheterocyclyl groups including, e.g., from 3- to 7-membered ringstructures or even from 3- to 10-membered ring structures. Heterocyclescan also be mono- or multi-cyclic ring systems. A heterocycle can befused to at least one aryl, partially unsaturated ring or saturatedring. Heterocyclyl groups include, e.g., biotinyl, chromenyl,dihydrofuryl, dihydroindolyl, dihydropyranyl, dihydrothienyl,dithiazolyl, homopiperidinyl, imidazolidinyl, isoquinolyl,isothiazolidinyl, isoxazolidinyl, morpholinyl, oxolanyl, oxazolidinyl,phenoxanthenyl, piperazinyl, piperidinyl, pyranyl, pyrazolidinyl,pyrazolinyl, pyridyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrrolidinyl, pyrrolidin-2-onyl,pyrrolinyl, tetrahydrofuryl, tetrahydroisoquinolyl, tetrahydropyranyl,tetrahydroquinolyl, thiazolidinyl, thiolanyl, thiomorpholinyl,thiopyranyl, xanthenyl, lactones, lactams such as azetidinones andpyrrolidinones, sultams, and sultones. The heterocyclic ring can besubstituted at at least one position with substituents including, e.g.,alkanoyl, alkoxy, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amido, amidino, amino, aryl,arylalkyl, azido, azo, carbamate, carbamide, carbonate, carbonyl,carboxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, ester, ether, formyl, halogen, haloalkyl,heteroaryl, heterocyclyl, hydrazine, hydroxyl, imino, ketone, nitro,phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, sulfate, sulfide, sulfonamido,sulfonyl and thiocarbonyl.

The term “heterocycloalkyl” means a saturated heterocyclyl groupattached to an alkyl group.

The term “heterocyclylalkoxy” means a heterocyclyl attached to an alkoxygroup.

The term “heterocyclyloxyalkyl” means a heterocyclyl attached to anoxygen (—O—), which is attached to an alkyl group.

The term “hydrazine” means the group —N(R⁹)N(R⁹)₂ where each R⁹ isindependently selected from alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, arylalkyl,carbonyl, cycloalkyl, ether, haloalkyl, heteroaryl and heterocyclyl.

The terms “hydroxy” and “hydroxyl” means the group —OH.

The term “hydroxyalkyl” means a hydroxy group attached to an alkylgroup.

The term “imino” means the group —C(═N)—R¹⁰, where R¹⁰ is selected fromalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, ether, haloalkyl,heteroaryl, and heterocyclyl.

The term “nitro” means the group —NO₂.

The term “phosphate” means the group —OP(O)(OR¹¹)₂ or its anions, whereeach R¹¹ is independently selected from alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl,arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, hydrogen, haloalkyl, heteroaryl, andheterocyclyl. The term “phosphanato” means the substituent —P(O)(OR¹¹)₂or its anions. The term “phosphinato” means the substituent —PR¹¹(O)(OR¹¹) or its anion.

The term “sulfate” means the group —OS(O)(OR¹²)₂ or its anions, whereeach R′² is independently selected from alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl,arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, hydrogen, haloalkyl, heteroaryl, andheterocyclyl.

The terms “sulfonamide” and “sulfonamido” mean a group having thestructure —N(R¹³)—S(O)₂—R¹³— or —S(O)₂—N(R¹³)R¹³, where each R¹³ isindependently selected from hydrogen, alkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, andheterocyclyl. Sulfonamides include substituted and unsubstitutedsulfonamides including, e.g., alkylsulfonamides, arylsulfonamides,cycloalkyl sulfonamides, and heterocyclyl sulfonamides.

The term “sulfonyl” means a group having the structure R¹⁴SO₂—, whereR¹⁴ is selected from alkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, and heterocyclyl. The term“alkylsulfonyl” means an alkyl group attached to a sulfonyl group.

The terms “sulfide” and “thioether” means a group having the structureR¹⁵S—, where R¹⁵ is selected from alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl,arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, ether, haloalkyl, heteroaryl, and heterocyclyl.The term “alkylsulfide” means an alkyl group attached to a sulfur atom.Sulfides include, e.g., “thio,” which means an —SH substituent.

The terms “thiocarbonyl” and “thiocarboxy” mean a carbon connected to asulfur atom through a double bond.

All chemical groups disclosed herein can be substituted where valencepermits substitution unless otherwise specified.

“Substituted” as used herein to describe a compound or chemical moietyrefers to at least one hydrogen atom of that compound or chemical moietybeing replaced with a second chemical moiety. Non-limiting examples ofsubstituents include those substituents found in the exemplary compoundsand embodiments disclosed herein, and halogen, alkyl, heteroalkyl,alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, hydroxy, alkoxyl, amino, azo,hydrazine, carbamide, nitro, thiol, thioether, imine, cyano, amido,phosphonato, phosphine, carbonyl, carboxyl, thiocarbonyl, sulfonyl,sulfonamide, ketone, aldehyde, ester, haloalkyl (e.g., trifluoromethyl),cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, and combinations thereof. Thesesubstituents can optionally be further substituted with a substituentselected from such groups. Substituents include, e.g., moieties in whicha carbon atom is substituted with a heteroatom such as nitrogen, oxygen,silicon, phosphorus, boron, sulfur, or a halogen atom.

The naming of the R substituents with respect to the heterocyclic coreis such that the group listed first is attached to the heterocycliccore.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The compounds disclosed herein are fluorophores (i.e., when excited byradiation of a first wavelength, they exhibit fluorescence emission at asecond wavelength). The compounds include an imidazo[1,5-a]pyridiniumion core and at least one substituent attached to the core. Thecompounds can exhibit a change in their fluorescence emission propertiesdue to a change in the deexcitation pathway (i.e., the mechanism bywhich the fluorescence emission is modulated). The change in thedeexcitation pathway of the compounds can be modulated by photoinducedelectron transfer (PET) or intramolecular charge transfer (ICT). Achange in the deexcitation pathway can manifest itself as an increase inthe intensity of the fluorescence emission, a decrease in the intensityof the fluorescence emission, a decrease in the intensity of thefluorescence emission at a first wavelength and an increase in theintensity of the fluorescence emission at a second wavelength, andcombinations thereof. In some embodiments, for example, the compoundresponds to a change in the environment surrounding the compound (e.g.,the presence, absence or change in concentration of a cation or of thehydrophobicity of the environment) by exhibiting a change influorescence emission due to photoinduced electron transfer when theenvironment is in one state and a change in fluorescence emission due tointramolecular charge transfer when the environment is in another state.This effect can be reversed upon alteration of the environment to onethat mimics its initial state.

The presence and mechanism of fluorescence emission can depend upon thesubstituents on the compound, the nature of a binding event with ananalyte, the environment in which the compound is located, andcombinations thereof. The substituents on the compound can be selectedto achieve compounds having a variety of fluorescence properties whenexcited by radiation including, e.g., compounds that inherently exhibitfluorescence emission upon excitation, compounds that do not inherentlyexhibit fluorescence emission but exhibit fluorescence emission upon abinding event (e.g., when the bound to a cation), compounds that exhibitfluorescence emission when present in a certain environment (e.g., ahydrophobic environment or an aqueous environment), compounds thatexhibit a change in fluorescence emission in response to a change in theenvironment in which the compound is located, and combinations thereof.A change in a fluorescence property exhibited by a compound can manifestitself as a change in emission intensity, a change in the emissionwavelength, and combinations thereof.

The substituents also can be selected to achieve compounds that functionin a variety of modes including, e.g., in a “turn-on” mode in whichdetectable fluorescence emission occurs as the environment changes or abinding event occurs, in a “turn-off” mode in which a detectablefluorescence emission ceases to occur as the environment changes or abinding event occurs, in a ratiometric response mode in which there aredetectable changes in the relative intensity of fluorescence emissionsat at least two different wavelengths, and combinations thereof. Thesecompounds can be useful as “turn-on” sensors, “turn-off” sensors, andratiometric response sensors, respectively. At least one property of thedetected fluorescence emission (e.g., the presence, absence, andintensity of the emission) can be correlated to a property of the system(e.g., the presence, absence, or concentration of a component ofinterest in the system).

The compounds preferably absorb radiation having a wavelength from about250 nm to about 600 nm and emit radiation having a wavelength from about350 nm to about 900 nm.

The compounds preferably exhibit high fluorescence quantum yield in theenvironment of interest including, e.g., aqueous environment, organicsolvent environment, hydrophobic environment, and combinations thereof.The compounds preferably exhibit a fluorescence quantum yield of atleast 0.1%, at least 1%, at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 15%, atleast 20%, at least 25%, at least 30%, or even at least 50%.

The compounds can be water soluble or water insoluble and the counterion can be selected to render the compound water soluble or waterinsoluble (e.g., soluble in organic solvent). The compound preferably isstable over a wide temperature range, upon exposure to oxygen, water, inmild acid, and in mild base.

Imidazo[1,5-a]Pyridinium Ions

The general chemical structure for the imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ions isas shown in the following formula:

R₁ is alkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, glycoalkyl, haloalkyl, heteroaryl,heterocyclyl, or cycloalkyl. When R₁ is aryl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl,or cycloalkyl, R₁ optionally can be substituted with at least one R₄.Specific R₁ groups include C₁₋₄ alkyl, phenyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkyl,phenylC₁₋₄alkoxy, phenylamine, phenyldi-C₁₋₄ alkylamine,phenylhaloC₁₋₄alkyl, pyridyl, phenyl(dicarboxy)amine,phenyl(dimethylpyridyl)amine,phenyl(methylpyridyl)(methylthiophene)amine and phenyl(aza-crown ether).

R₂ is H, alkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, carbonyl, cycloalkyl, ether, thioether,halogen, haloalkyl, heteroaryl, or heterocyclyl. When R₂ is aryl,heteroaryl, heterocyclyl or cycloalkyl, R₂ optionally can be substitutedwith at least one R₄. Specific R₂ groups include C₁₋₄ alkyl, phenyl,phenylC₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkoxy, phenylamine, phenyldi-C₁₋₄alkylamine, phenylhaloC₁₋₄alkyl, pyridyl, phenyl(dicarboxy)amine,phenyl(dimethylpyridyl)amine,phenyl(methylpyridyl)(methylthiophene)amine and phenyl(aza-crown ether).

R₃ is

H, alkyl, alkoxy, alkenyl alkenoxy, alkynyl, alkynoxy, amide, amidino,amine, aryl, arylalkyl, azido, azo, carbamate, carbamide, carbonyl,carboxamido, carboxy, cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, ether, thioether,halogen, haloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl, hydrazine, imino, nitro,phosphate, sulfate, sulfonamide, sulfonyl, sulfide, or thiocarbonyl.When R₃ is alkenyl, alkenoxy, alkynyl, alkynoxy, aryl, heteroaryl,heterocyclyl or cycloalkyl, R₃ optionally can be substituted with atleast one R₄. Specific R₃ groups include C₁₋₄ alkyl, C₁₋₄ alkoxy, C₁₋₄alkenyl, C₁₋₄ alkynyl, (di-C₁₋₄alkyl)amine, halogen, trihaloalkyl,phenyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkoxy, phenylamine, phenyl(di-C₁₋₄alkyl)amine, phenylhaloC₁₋₄alkyl, pyridyl, triazolyl, triazolylaryl,triazolylarylalkyl, triazolylarylalkoxy, triazolylarylamine,triazolylaryldialkylamine, phenyl(dicarboxy)amine,phenyl(dimethylpyridyl)amine,phenyl(methylpyridyl)(methylthiophene)amine and phenyl(aza-crown ether).Particularly useful R₃ groups include triazoles that includedialkylaniline as the R₄ substituent, alkynes, and azides.

Each R₄ is independently H, alkyl, alkoxy, alkenyl alkenoxy, alkynyl,alkynoxy, amide, amidino, amino, aryl, arylalkyl, azido, azo, carbamate,carbamide, carbonyl, carboxamido, carboxy, cyano, cycloalkyl,cycloalkoxy, ether, thioether, halogen, haloalkyl, heteroaryl,heterocyclyl, hydrazine imino, nitro, phosphate, sulfate, sulfonamide,sulfonyl, sulfide, or thiocarbonyl. Specific R₄ groups include hydrogen,C₁₋₄ alkyl, C₁₋₄ alkoxy, C₁₋₄ alkenyl, C₁₋₄ alkynyl, amines,C₁₋₄dialkylamine, amidos, halogen, trihaloalkyl, phenyl,(dicarboxy)amine, (dimethylpyridyl)amine,(methylpyridyl)(methylthiophene)amine, crown ether, and aza crown ether.

Each R₅ is independently H, aryl, heteroaryl, ether, thioether, alkyl,alkenyl, arylalkyl, arylamine, cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, haloalkyl,heteroaryl, or heterocyclyl. When R₅ is alkenyl, aryl, heteroaryl,heterocyclyl or cycloalkyl, R₅ optionally can be substituted with atleast one R₄.

Specific examples of R₅ include

hydrogen, phenyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkoxy, phenylamine,phenyldi-C₁₋₄ alkylamine, phenylC₁₋₄alkoxy, and phenylhaloC₁₋₄alkyl.

Each Z is independently CH or N.

Each R₆ is independently alkyl, alkoxy, amine, aryl, azo, carbamide,heteroaryl, halogen, haloalkyl, hydrazine, hydrogen, nitro, carbonyl,carboxy, ester, ether, thioether, phosphate, sulfate, sulfonamide,sulfonyl, sulfide, or thiocarbonyl.

X⁻ is a counter ion. Suitable counter ions include, e.g., any stableanionic species, chloride, fluoride, bromide, hexafluorophosphate,tetrafluoroborate, tetraphenylborate, sulfonic acid salts (e.g., sulfatebisulfate, sulfite, bisulfite, triflate, and tosylate), hydroxide,alkoxide, carboxylate (e.g., trifluoroacetate, acetate, benzoate, andhexanoate), carbonate, bicarbonate, [B[3,5-(CF₃)₂C₆H₃]₄]—, perchlorate,tetrakis(pentafluorphenyl)borate, and Al(OC(CF₃)₃)₄—.

The letter n on R₃ is an integer from 1 to 4.

The imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion preferably includes at least onesubstituent that includes, e.g., at least one heteroatom that includesat least one electron pair conjugated to the imidazo[1,5-a]pyridiniumion core, an aryl group that includes a substituent that includes aheteroatom that includes at least one pair of electrons conjugated tothe aryl group, a triazole, an alkenyl, an alkynyl, and combinationsthereof. Useful electron pair donating heteroatoms include, e.g.,nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorous.

Triazole Substituted Imidazo[1,5-a]Pyridinium Ions

One useful class of the imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ions of formula (I)includes imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ions having the general chemicalstructure (formula II):

where R₁, R₂, R₅ and X— are as set forth above with respect to thecompound of formula I.

Specific examples of R₅ include hydrogen,

phenyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkoxy, phenylamine, phenyl(di-C₁₋₄alkyl)amine, phenylC₁₋₄alkoxy, and phenylhaloC₁₋₄alkyl, where R6 and Zare as defined above with respect to the compound of formula (I).

Specific imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ions include, e.g.,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumhexafluorophosphate, 2-butyl-1-(p-tolyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtertraphenylborate,2-butyl-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-ium chloride,2-butyl-1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(dimethylamino)-2,6-diisopropylphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,5-(1-benzyl-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-butyl-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,2-butyl-5-(1-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,5-(1-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-(p-tolyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,5-(1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-(p-tolyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,5-(1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,5-(1-(4-((diethylamino)methyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-5-ethynyl-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride, 2-butyl-5-ethynyl-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-ium chloride,2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-ethynyl-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,5-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,2-butyl-5-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-3-(pyridin-2-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumhydrogensulfate, 1-phenyl-2-(p-tolyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumhexafluorophosphate,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumhydrogensulfate,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(p-tolyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(p-tolyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-butyl-5-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate, and5-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate.

Methods of Use

The imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ions are useful in a variety ofapplications including, e.g., monitoring (e.g., detecting) thefluorescence emission of a system (e.g., monitoring the fluorescenceemission intensity increase, decrease, and combinations thereof),detecting the presence, absence, concentration or combination thereof ofa moiety including, e.g., a cation (e.g., as a cation sensor), ahydrophobic component (e.g., as a hydrophobicity sensor), andcombinations thereof.

The imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ions can be used to monitor cations andhydrophobic components in a variety of in vitro and in vivo environmentsincluding, e.g., extracellular spaces, vesicles, vascular tissue ofplants and animals, biological fluids (e.g., blood and urine),biomolecules, biological structures (e.g., cell membranes, lipidbilayers, and protein binding pockets), synthetic (i.e., artificial)membranes, micelles, dendrimers, and lipid bilayers, buffer solutions,fermentation media, environmental samples (e.g., water, soil, wastewater and seawater), and in chemical reactors.

The imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ions can interact with the cations andhydrophobic components through a variety of mechanisms including, e.g.,forming a covalent bond, forming an ionic bond, through hydrophobicinteractions, through van der Waals interactions, and combinationsthereof.

Cation Sensor

The substituents on the imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion core of thecompound of formula (I) can be selected to achieve a cation sensoruseful in a variety of applications including, e.g., detecting at leastone of the presence, absence, and concentration of at least one cation.The cation sensor preferably includes at least one substituent thatincludes, e.g., at least one heteroatom that includes at least oneelectron pair conjugated to the imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion core, anaryl group that includes a substituent that includes a heteroatom havingat least one lone pair of electrons conjugated to the aryl group, andcombinations thereof.

The cation sensor can function in a variety of modes including, e.g., asa turn-on sensor, a turn-off sensor, a ratiometric response sensor, andcombinations thereof. The cation sensor can exhibit a variety offluorescence responses to a cation of interest including, e.g., beingfree from fluorescence emission (e.g., exhibits fluorescence quenching)in the absence of a cation of interest, exhibiting fluorescence emissionin the absence of a cation of interest, exhibiting fluorescence emissionin the presence of a cation of interest (i.e., turn-on), exhibitingfluorescence quenching in the presence of a cation of interest,exhibiting a ratiometric response to cation concentration, andcombinations thereof. For some cation sensors that employ the compoundof formula (I), the turn-on fluorescence emission is modulated by PETand the ratiometric response is modulated by ICT.

The cation sensor can be constructed to bind a variety of cationsincluding, e.g., protons and metal ions including, e.g., Ca²⁺, Zn²⁺,Mg²⁺, Ga³⁺, Tb³⁺, La³⁺, Pb³⁺, Hg²⁺, Cd²⁺, Co²⁺, Ni²⁺, Co²⁺, Fe²⁺, Mn²⁺,Ba²⁺, U²⁺, U³⁺, and Sr²⁺, and combinations thereof.

In one embodiment, the compound of formula (I) includes a proton bindingamino group conjugated to the imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion core. Such acompound can function as a pH sensor. Useful pH sensors include, e.g.,compounds of formula (I) in which R₁ is phenyldialkylamine (e.g.,4-phenyldiethylamine), R₂ is phenylalkoxy, and R₃ is H, and compounds offormula (I) in which R₁ is phenylalkoxy (e.g., 4-phenylmethoxy), R₂ isphenyldialkylamine (e.g., 4-phenyldiethylamine), and R₃ is H. Oneexample of a useful pH sensor is Compound 7 of Example 7, where R₁ is4-diethylanaline and R₂ is 4-phenylmethoxy, which exhibits fluorescenceemission at 450 nm in acetonitrile in the presence of trifluoroaceticacid, and the absence of emission (i.e., fluorescence quenching) inacetonitrile in the absence of trifluoroacetic acid (see, FIG. 1B).

The cation sensors can also exhibit a ratiometric response to changingpH. Useful pH sensors that exhibit a ratiometric response to pH inacetonitrile include, e.g., compounds of formula (I) in which R₁ isphenylalkoxy (e.g., 4-phenylmethoxy), R₂ is phenyldialkylamine (e.g.,4-phenyldiethylamine), and R₃ is H. One example of a useful ratiometricresponse sensor is Compound 6 of Example 6, where R₂ is 4-diethylanalineand R₁ 4-phenylmethoxy, which exhibits fluorescence emission at 565 nmin acetonitrile in the absence of trifluoroacetic acid, and fluorescenceemission at 400 nm in acetonitrile in the presence of trifluoroaceticacid (see, FIG. 1A). The ratio of the intensity at each wavelength canbe used to quantify the amount of acid present in the system.

The compound optionally includes at least two substituents capable ofdonating a pair of electrons to a cation (i.e., cation chelatingsubstituents). The cation chelating substituents are capable of bindinga cation such that the compound forms at least two coordinate bonds withthe cation. The compound optionally includes include at least twodifferent cation chelating moieties that have affinities for differentcations and can function as a dual or multi-cation sensor. Useful dualcation chelating moieties have affinities for two cations including,e.g., Ca²⁺ and Zn²⁺, Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺, and Mg²⁺ and Zn²⁺.

Substituents that are useful cation chelating moieties include, e.g.,heteroatom-containing groups including, e.g., nitrogen, oxygen, sulfurand phosphorous, attached to the heterocyclic core through a group thatincludes unsaturation (e.g., aryl, heteroaryl, alkenyl, and alkynyl).Useful cation chelating moieties include, e.g., amide, amidino, amine,aryl, arylalkyl, carbamate, carbonyl, carboxamido, carboxy, ether,heteroaryl, heterocyclyl, imino, nitro, phosphate, sulfate, sulfonamide,sulfonyl, sulfide, thiocarbonyl, and combinations thereof. Suitablechelating structures include, e.g., macrocycles, cryptands, crownethers, azo crown ethers, thio crown ethers, and combinations thereofthat include at least one Lewis basic site (e.g., oxygen, sulfur,nitrogen, phosphorous, and combinations thereof). Useful chelatingstructures include the following, where the structures are attached tothe core at at least one of R₁, R₂, and R₃:

The cation chelating moiety can be selected to bind a variety of metalions including the metal ions set forth above and incorporated herein.

The cation sensors can be used to detect a cation by contacting a samplewith a cation sensor, exciting the sensor with radiation, and monitoringthe fluorescence emitted by the sample.

Monitoring the fluorescence emitted by the sample can result in thedetection of cations as indicated by an increase in the intensity of theemission, a decrease in the intensity of the emission, a change in thewavelength of emission, and combinations thereof.

A change in the fluorescence emitted by the sample can be correlated toat least one change in the system including, e.g., the binding of atleast one cation to the compound, a change in the pH of the system, achange in the concentration of cation presence in the system, andcombinations thereof.

The cation sensors also can be used to monitor intracellular ions (e.g.,Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Fe²⁺ and Zn²⁺) in a cell. In one method, intracellular metalions are detected in live cells.

Hydrophobicity Sensor

The substituents on the imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion core of thecompound of formula (II) can be selected to achieve a hydrophobicitysensor, i.e., a sensor that is capable of detecting a hydrophobiccomponent. The hydrophobicity sensor can sense a variety of hydrophobiccomponents including, e.g., hydrophobic environments (e.g., localhydrophobicity, i.e., the hydrophobicity surrounding the sensor),hydrophobic components of biological systems, and combinations thereof.Hydrophobic environments include, e.g., inorganic solvents (e.g.,acetonitrile, hexane, benzene, toluene, tetrahydrofuran, chloroform,dichloromethane, dimethylsulfoxide), nonpolar buffers (e.g.,sodiumdodecylsulfate), dendrimers, polymers, synthetic micelles, and caninclude hydrophobic components of biological systems. Hydrophobiccomponents of biological systems include, e.g., cell membranes, lipidbilayers, micelles (e.g., natural micelles), and protein bindingpockets.

The hydrophobicity sensor can be used in a variety of applicationsincluding, e.g., probing the location of a hydrophobic environment,probing the concentration of select analytes in immediate proximity tothe sensor, monitoring the hydrophobicity of the environment surroundingthe sensor, and optionally detecting at least one of the presence,absence, and concentration of a cation.

The hydrophobicity sensor can exhibit a variety of fluorescenceresponses to a hydrophobic component including, e.g., being free fromfluorescence emission (e.g., exhibits fluorescence quenching) in theabsence of a hydrophobic component and emitting fluorescence in thepresence of hydrophobic component. The hydrophobicity sensor canadditionally exhibit the cation sensor fluorescence responses set forthabove with respect to cation sensors.

The mode in which the sensor functions depends upon the substituents onthe imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion core, the environment in which thesensor is located, the cations present in the environment, andcombinations thereof. The substituents on the imidazo[1,5-a]pyridiniumion core can be selected to achieve a hydrophobicity sensor thatfunctions as a turn-on hydrophobicity sensor, a ratiometric responsecation sensor, and combinations thereof. The hydrophobicity sensor canfunction as a turn-on sensor, for example, in aqueous environments(e.g., water and water-based solvents), as a ratiometric response sensorin a nonpolar environment (e.g., an organic solvent), and combinationsthereof. Alternatively, the hydrophobicity sensor can function as both aturn-on sensor and a ratiometric sensor in nonpolar environments. Forsome hydrophobicity sensors, the turn-on fluorescence emission ismodulated by PET or ICT and the ratiometric response is modulated by acombination of ICT and PET.

One useful class of hydrophobicity sensors has a chemical structureaccording to the following formula

where R₁ is phenylC₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkoxy, phenylamine,phenyl(di-C₁₋₄ alkyl)amine, or phenylhaloC₁₋₄alkyl, R₂ is H, and R₅ isphenylC₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkoxy, phenylamine, phenyl(di-C₁₋₄alkyl)amine, or phenylhaloC₁₋₄alkyl, or even where R₁ is phenyl(di-C₁₋₄alkyl)amine (e.g., 4-phenyldiethylamine), R₂ is H, and R₅ is phenylC₁₋₄alkyl or phenyl(di-C₁₋₄ alkyl)amine.

One example of a useful hydrophobicity sensor that exhibits turn-onhydrophobicity sensing and ratiometric cation sensing includes compoundsof formula (III) in which R₁ is phenyldialkylamine (e.g.,phenyldimethylamine and phenyldiethylamine), R₂ is H, and R₅ isphenylalkyl.

One example of a useful method of using the hydrophobicity sensorincludes contacting a system with the hydrophobicity sensor anddetecting a change in the fluorescence emission of the system. Thechange can be indicative of the presence or absence of a hydrophobiccomponent, the presence or absence of a cation, and combinationsthereof.

Additional Uses

The imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ions are suitable for a variety of usesincluding, e.g., as fluorescent labels, fluorogenic probes, andcombinations thereof, and in a variety of methods including, e.g.,methods of labeling, binding, quantitating, quantifying, monitoring,detecting, and screening biological species (e.g., biomolecules andbiological structures). One useful method includes staining tissue witha imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion disclosed herein. Biomolecules that canbe labeled with the imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ions include, e.g., DNA,RNA, monosaccharides, polysaccharides, nucleotides (ATP, GTP, cAMP),lipids, peptides, and proteins (including enzymes and other structuralproteins). The imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ions can also be used to labelsuch biological structures as lipid bilayers, membranes, micelles,transmembrane proteins, ribosomes, liposomes, nucleosomes, peroxisomes,cytoskeletal units, plastids, chloroplasts, and mitochondria.Additionally, imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ions can be covalently attachedto other small molecules known to bind specific biomolecule targets,allowing, for example, the sequence-specific labeling of DNA and RNAstrands, the specific labeling of target proteins, and the localizationof these probes in select regions of the cellular membrane.

The biomolecules and biological structures can interact with theimidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ions or a moiety coupled to the ion in avariety of manners including, e.g., through a covalent bond, through anionic bond, through a pi-pi stacking interaction, through hydrophobicinteractions, through ampiphilic interactions, through van der Waalsinteractions, fluorophore-fluorophore interactions, and combinationsthereof. The interaction can be reversible or irreversible. Theinteraction can be with the surface, an interior cavity, binding site,or other available structure or space of the biomolecules and biologicalstructures.

The methods of use can further include visualizing theimidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion bound to the biomolecules. Thevisualization can be performed exposing the sample to radiation followedby a variety of techniques including, e.g., epifluorescence microscopy,total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy, confocal microscopy,two-photon or three-photon emission microscopy, second harmonic imagingmicroscopy, polarization microscopy, and aperture-based or aperturelessnear-field optical microscopy. The methods of use can further includequantifying the imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion bound to the biomolecules.The quantification can be performed using a variety of techniquesincluding, e.g., counting detected photons in a time interval, pumpingthe fluorophore with light of different polarizations, measuring thepolarization of the detected photons, measuring the anisotropy of thedetected photons, measuring the spectrum of the detected photons,measuring the lifetime of the detected photons, measuring thecorrelations of the detected photons, and combinations thereof.Correlations can be measured a variety of techniques including, e.g.,fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, start-stop coincidence counting,using hardware autocorrelators, time-tagging the emission time of eachphoton with respect to the time of a pumping light pulse followed byoff-line computation, and combinations thereof.

The imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ions can be provided neat or in the form ofa composition that includes a carrier. Useful carriers include, e.g.,solvents (aqueous solvents, organic solvents, and combinations thereof)buffers, and combinations thereof. The imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ions canalso be packaged in any suitable packaging including, e.g., a kit. Oneuseful package includes the imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion, optionally ina carrier, disposed in a container (e.g., packet, vial, tube, andampoule).

The invention will now be described by way of the following examples.All parts, ratios, percentages and amounts stated in the Examples are byweight unless otherwise specified.

EXAMPLES

Test Procedures

Test procedures used in the examples include the following. All ratiosand percentages are by weight unless otherwise indicated. The proceduresare conducted at room temperature (i.e., an ambient temperature of fromabout 20° C. to about 25° C.) unless otherwise specified.

Stock Solution Preparation

Stock solutions of each compound (having a concentration of from 1-5 mM)were prepared by dissolving the corresponding salts of the compounds inmethanol or N,N-dimethylformamide, and then diluting the same withacetonitrile or buffered water having a pH of from 2.5 to 7.5 derivedfrom 0.2 M sodium hypophosphate and 0.1M citric acid, to achieve asample solution having a compound concentration of 30.0 μM.

Method for Obtaining an Ultraviolet-Visible Light Spectrum

Ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) Light spectra are obtained and recorded onan Agilent 8453 spectrophotometer using ChemStation software (AgilentTechnologies, Inc., Santa Clara, Calif.).

Method for Obtaining a Fluorescence Emission Spectrum

Fluorescence emission spectra are obtained and recorded on a QM-4-CWSpectrofluorometer using FeliX32 software (Photon TechnologyInternational, Inc., Birmingham, N.J.).

Method for Determining Quantum Yield

Quantum yield is determined using an integrating sphere attached to aQM-4-CW Spectrofluorometer using FeliX32 software (Photon TechnologyInternational).

Method for Determining pK_(a)

A pK_(a) value is determined by plotting fluorescence intensity(I_(max)) at emission maxima against pH and fitting the result to thenon-linear expression in equation (1) (i.e., eq. (1)). In eq (1), a andb are the molar coefficient of the acid (HA) and base (A⁻) form,respectively, and c is the combined overall concentration of the acidand base form. i.e., c=[HA]+[A⁻].

$\begin{matrix}{I_{\max} = {{\left( {a - b} \right)\left( \frac{c*10^{({{pka} - {pH}})}}{1 + 10^{({{pKa} - {pH}})}} \right)} + \left( {b*c} \right)}} & (1)\end{matrix}$Preparation of Starting Materials

Picolinaldehyde, N,N-diethylbenzene-1,4-diamine, n-butylamine andaniline were purified by short path vacuum distillation prior to use.Ethanol was dried over 3 Å molecular sieves. Solutions of 3 Mhydrochloric acid in ethanol were generated by the addition ofacetylchloride to dry ethanol in an ice bath, and standardized bytitration with a known concentration of sodium hydroxide usingphenolphthalein as an indicator. All other reagents were obtained fromcommercial sources and used without further purification unlessotherwise noted.

General Procedure (A) for Preparing Imidazo[1,5-a]pyridine Fluorophores:

Imidazo[1,5-a]pyridine fluorophores were prepared by adding 1 equivalent(equiv) of 3 M hydrochloric acid in ethanol (an additional equivalent ofacid was used in reactions with basic substrates) and picolinaldehyde orother 2-acylpyridine to 1 equiv of a 0.5 M solution of 1 equiv ofprimary amine in dry ethanol or acetonitrile and 1.5 equiv of formalin.The reaction was stirred at room temperature for the specified period oftime (i.e., from about 15 min to about 12 hours) and monitored byanalytical thin layer chromatography (TLC) (10% methanol in DCM) for theappearance of a blue fluorescent product spot by UV light. Crudereaction mixtures were concentrated in vacuo (˜15 Torr) and dried underhigh vacuum at 0.2 Torr (for from 2 to 12 hours).

Chloride salts were obtained through filtration of precipitate,recrystallization or trituration of the crude solid under conditionsgiven. Hexafluorophosphate salts were obtained by salt metathesis withpotassium hexafluorophosphate following the General Procedure for SaltMetathesis to Hexafluorophosphate Counterion. Tetraphenylborate saltswere obtained by salt metathesis using sodium tetraphenylborate asdescribed with respect to the compounds below that are in the form oftetraphenylborate salts.

General Procedure (B) for Preparing Imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium Ions:

To a 0.5 M solution of primary amine (1 equiv) in dry ethanol at roomtemperature is added paraformaldehyde (1.5 equiv). The resultingsuspension is stirred at room temperature until the solution becomeshomogeneous. One equivalent of 3 M hydrochloric acid in ethanol is thenadded to the solution followed by either picolinaldehyde or a2-acylpyridine derivative (1 equiv). The reaction is stirred at roomtemperature for the amount of time specified (e.g., from 15 min to 4days) and monitored by analytical TLC (10% methanol in DCM) for theappearance of a blue fluorescent product spot by UV light. Crudereaction mixtures were concentrated and placed under high vacuum (i.e.,0.2 Torr). Chloride salts were obtained through filtration ofprecipitate, recrystallization or trituration of the crude solid underconditions specific for the given substrate. Hexafluorophosphate saltswere obtained by salt metathesis with potassium hexafluorophosphatefollowing the General Procedure For Salt Metathesis toHexafluorophosphate Counterion.

General Procedure for Salt Metathesis to Hexafluorophosphate Counterion:

Hexafluorophosphate salts were obtained by dissolving crude solids in aminimal amount of water followed by slow addition of concentratedaqueous potassium hexafluorophosphate (KPF₆) (1.1 equiv of KPF₆ per molof imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium salt) while stirring. The resultingprecipitate was either filtered, in the case of a solid, or extractedwith three portions of ethyl acetate in the case of a semi-solid. Solidscollected by precipitation were confirmed to be analytically pure using¹H-NMR. Ethyl acetate layers from the extraction procedure werecombined, washed once with water, dried over magnesium sulfate, filteredand concentrated. The resulting solids were triturated with diethylether, then filtered or decanted to obtain pure material.

General Procedure for Preparing Triazole SubstitutedImidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium Ions:

Triazoles substituted imidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ions were prepared usinga Huisgen Alkyne-Azide copper catalyzed cycloaddition reaction by adding1 molar equivalent of 3 M hydrochloric acid in ethanol and6-ethylyne-2-acylpyridine, to 1 molar equiv of a 0.5 M solution ofprimary amine in dry ethanol, methanol, or acetonitrile and 1.5 molarequiv of formalin. The reaction was stirred at room temperature for 16hours and monitored by analytical thin layer chromatography (TLC) (10%methanol in DCM, UV-light visualization) or 1H NMR for completion of theimidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium ion forming reaction.

One molar equivalent of a substituted azide in 0.5 M solvent (e.g.,ethanol, methanol or acetonitrile), and 1 mole % of a copper (Cu) (I)were then added to the reaction mixture and the reaction was allowed toproceed, with stirring, for 12 hours at room temperature.

Crude reaction mixtures were concentrated and placed under high vacuum(i.e., 0.2 Torr). Chloride salts were obtained through filtration ofprecipitate, recrystallization or trituration of the crude solid underconditions specific for the given substrate. Hexafluorophosphate saltswere obtained by salt metathesis with potassium hexafluorophosphatefollowing the General Procedure for Salt Metathesis tohexafluorophosphate counterion.

Comparative Example

2-Butylimidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium hexafluorophosphate

was prepared according to General Procedure (A), in which 0.31 mLn-butylamine (3.1 mmol, 1 equiv), 0.35 mL formalin (4.7 mmol, 1.5equiv), 1.1 mL 2.94 M hydrochloric acid in ethanol (3.1 mmol, 1 equiv)and 0.30 mL picolinaldehyde (3.1 mmol, 1 equiv) were combined in 5.2 mLethanol and maintained at room temperature for 4 hours. Salt metathesiswith KPF₆ resulted in a semi-solid, which upon extraction with ethylacetate (3 three times using 10 mL of ethyl acetate each time) andtrituration with 6.0 mL diethyl ether, yielded 0.86 g2-butylimidazo[1,5-a]pyridinium hexafluorophosphate (2.7 mmol, a 86%yield) as a white solid.

Example 1 Compound 1

Compound 1, i.e.,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-5-ethynyl-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,

was prepared according to the General Procedure General Procedure (A)For Preparing Imidazo[1,5-a]pyridine Fluorophores: where thepicolinaldehyde was 2-ethynyl picolinaldehyde, and the primary amine wasN¹,N¹-diethylbenzene-1,4-diamine. The procedure was modified from thegeneral procedure by using the bis-hydrochloric acid salt of the amineinstead of 3 M hydrochloric acid in ethanol. The workup was modified bydissolving crude material in an acetonitrile ethanol mixture (2:1) andstirring with an excess of solid sodium bicarbonate to remove excessacid. The bicarbonate was removed by filtration through a 0.2 μm nylonsyringe tip filter.

Example 2 Compound 2

2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumhexafluorophosphate (9)

was prepared according to general procedure (A) in which a reactionmixture was prepared by combining 186 μl ethanol formalin (2.48 mmol,1.5 equiv) and freshly distilled 274.6 μl N,N-diethylbenzene-1,4-diamine(1.66 mmol, 1 equiv). Then, 158 μl picolinaldehyde (1.66 mmol, 1 equiv)and 1.09 μl 3.14 M hydrochloric acid in ethanol (3.31 mmol, 2 equiv)were simultaneously added to the reaction mixture and the reaction wasmaintained at room temperature for 12 hours. The solution wasconcentrated and the crude chloride salt subjected to salt metathesiswith potassium hexafluorophosphate. The resulting precipitate wasfiltered and washed with water two times using 500 μl of water for eachwash. The precipitate was then dried under high vacuum at 0.2 Torr,dissolved in 5 mL acetonitrile, and stirred with 800 mg sodiumbicarbonate for 30 minutes at room temperature. The resulting suspensionwas filtered through a 0.2 μm nylon syringe tip filter and concentratedin vacuo to provide 509 mg2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumhexafluorophosphate (1.24 mmol, at a 74.7% yield) as red solid. Crystalssuitable for X-ray diffraction were obtained by layering a concentratedacetone solution of2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumhexafluorophosphate with pentane.

Example 3 Compound 3

2-butyl-1-(p-tolyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-ium tertraphenylborate

was prepared according to general procedure (A), in which 25 μln-butylamine (0.25 mmol, 1 equiv), 28 μl formalin (0.37 mmol, 1.5equiv), 82 μl 3.05 M hydrochloric acid in ethanol (0.25 mmol, 1 equiv)and 49 mg pyridin-2-yl(p-tolyl)methanone (0.25 mmol, 1 equiv) werecombined in 0.50 mL acetonitrile and maintained at room temperature for12 hours. The crude material was then dissolved in 1.0 mL methanol andthen 94 mg sodium tetraphenylborate (0.27 mmol, 1.1 equiv) in 1.0 mLmethanol was added drop wise while stirring vigorously. Theheterogeneous mixture was stirred vigorously for 3 hours at roomtemperature until the solid became a fine suspension, which was thenfiltered, washed with 500 μl of methanol and dried under high vacuum at0.2 Torr to obtain 105 mg2-butyl-1-(p-tolyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-ium tetraphenylborate(0.18 mmol, a 72% yield) as a white solid.

Example 4 Compound 4

2-butyl-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-ium chloride

was prepared according to general procedure (A, in which 35 μln-butylamine (0.35 mmol, 1 equiv), 40 μl formalin (0.53 mmol, 1.5equiv), 0.11 mL 3.14 M hydrochloric acid in ethanol (0.35 mmol, 1 equiv)and 76 mg (4-methoxyphenyl)(pyridin-2-yl)methanone (0.35 mmol, 1 equiv)were combined in 0.70 mL acetonitrile and maintained at room temperaturefor 12 hours. The crude material was then dissolved in 3 mL ethanol andstirred with sodium bicarbonate at room temperature for 10 min. Theresulting suspension was then filtered through a 1.0 mL 0.2 um nylonsyringe tip filter and the solid was rinsed with an additional 1 mL ofethanol. The combined filtrate was then concentrated and triturated with2 mL diethyl ether. The resulting solid was filtered and rinsed withdiethyl ether two times using 1 mL of diethyl ether for each rinseproviding 0.10 g2-butyl-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-ium chloride(0.23 mmol, a 66% yield) as a white solid.

Example 5 Compound 5

2-butyl-1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate

was prepared according to general procedure (A), in which 25 μln-butylamine (0.21 mmol, 1 equiv), 24 μl formalin (0.32 mmol, 1.5equiv), 0.14 mL 3.05 M hydrochloric acid in ethanol (0.43 mmol, 2 equiv)and 54 mg (4-(diethylamino)phenyl)(pyridin-2-yl)methanone (0.21 mmol, 1equiv) were combined in 1.0 mL acetonitrile and maintained at roomtemperature for 12 hours. The reaction was concentrated in vacuo anddried under high vacuum at 0.2 Torr. The resulting crude material wasdissolved in 1.5 mL ethanol and stirred with 0.8 g sodium bicarbonatefor 1 hour at room temperature. The resulting suspension was thenfiltered through a 0.2 um nylon syringe tip filter, washed with ethanolthree times using 6 mL of ethanol for each wash and filtered. Thecombined filtrate was concentrated. The resulting crude oil wasdissolved in 1.5 mL methanol and 73 mg sodium tetraphenylborate (0.21mmol, 1 equiv) in 1.5 mL methanol was added drop wise to the oil whilestirring vigorously. The heterogeneous mixture was stirred vigorouslyfor 3 hours at room temperature until the solid became a finesuspension. The mixture was cooled to 4° C. in a refrigerator. The solidwas then filtered, rinsed with methanol three times using 0.25 mL ofmethanol for each rinse and dried under high vacuum at 0.2 Torr toobtain 96 mg2-butyl-1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate (0.15 mmol, a 70% yield) as an orange solid.

The photophysical properties of compounds 1-5 were determined. Thecompounds included hydrogen at each position that is not otherwisespecified: the positions that are specified are specified with referenceto the following structure:

The compounds were analyzed at 298° K according to the Method forObtaining Ultraviolet-Visible Light Spectrum (30 μM acetonitrile) toobtain the maximum absorbance wavelength (λ_(abs,max)), Method forObtaining Fluorescence Emission Spectrum (30 μM acetonitrile) to obtainthe maximum emission wavelength (λ_(em,max)) and Method for DeterminingQuantum Yield (Φ_(F)) (30 μM acetonitrile) at the concentration, in thesolvent, and with the counter ion indicated in Table 1. The compoundsincluded hydrogen at each R group that is not otherwise specified.

TABLE 1 Position Position of of λ_(abs, max) λ_(em, max) Group GroupGroup Counter Φ_(F) Abs Em Compound 1 1 2 Group 2 Ion % (nm) (nm) 2 NANA 2

PF₆ ⁻ 30 330 515 3 2 n-Bu 1

TFB 46 320 415 4 2 n-Bu 1

Cl⁻ 64 320 430 5 2 n-Bu 1

TFB 38 355 550 n-Bu = n-butyl TFB = tetraphenylborate a = this compoundexhibited a broad emission and with multiple vibronic features.

Example 6 Compound 6

1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride

was prepared according to general procedure (A), in which 28 μg4-methoxyaniline (0.22 mmol, 1 equiv), 24 μl formalin (0.34 mmol, 1.5equiv), 0.14 mL 3.14 M hydrochloric acid in ethanol (0.45 mmol, 2 equiv)and 57 mg (4-(diethylamino)phenyl)(pyridin-2-yl)methanone (0.22 mmol, 1equiv) were combined in 0.45 mL ethanol and maintained at roomtemperature for 12 hours. The reaction was concentrated in vacuo anddried under high vacuum at 0.2 Torr. The crude material was trituratedwith 1.5 mL acetone, which resulted in the formation of a solid. Thesuspension was then filtered and rinsed with (2:1) acetone/diethyletherthree times using 1 mL of (2:1) acetone/diethylether for each rinse. Theresulting solid was dried under high vacuum at 0.2 Torr for 48 hours toprovide 80 mg1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride (0.18 mmol, a 80% yield) as a cream colored solid. Thismaterial was determined to be the monocationic salt by titration withsodium hydroxide.

Example 7 Compound 7

Compound 7, i.e.,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride

was prepared according to general procedure (A), in which freshlydistilled 0.12 μl N,N-diethylbenzene-1,4-diamine (0.74 mmol, 1 equiv),83 μl formalin (0.1.1 mmol, 1.5 equiv), 0.47 mL 3.14 M hydrochloric acidin ethanol (1.5 mmol, 2 equiv) and 0.16 g(4-methoxyphenyl)(pyridin-2-yl)methanone, (0.74 mmol, 1 equiv) werecombined in 1.5 mL acetonitrile and maintained at room temperature for12 hours. The reaction was concentrated in vacuo and dried under highvacuum at 0.2 Torr. The crude material was then triturated with 1.0 mLacetone and diluted with 0.5 mL diethylether. The resulting solution wasdecanted and the process was repeated an additional two times. Theresulting solid was then dissolved in methanol, transferred to a taredvial, concentrated under a stream of nitrogen, and dried under highvacuum at 0.2 Torr for 48 hours to provide 0.27 g,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride (0.66 mmol, a 90% yield) as a deliquescent cream colored solid.This material was determined to be the monocationic salt by titrationwith sodium hydroxide. The material used for fluorescence testing wasfurther purified by recrystallization from acetonitrile andtetrahydrofuran. Crystals used for X-ray diffraction were obtained bylayering a concentrated methanolic solution of2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride with pentane.

Example 8 Compound 8

2-(4-(dimethylamino)-2,6-diisopropylphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate

was prepared according to general procedure (A); 77 μg3,5-diisopropyl-N,N-dimethylbenzene-1,4-diamine (0.35 mmol, 1 equiv), 39μl formalin (0.53 mmol, 1.5 equiv), 0.23 mL 3.05 M hydrochloric acid inethanol (0.70 mmol, 2 equiv) and 34 μl picolinaldehyde (0.35 mmol, 1equiv) were combined in 1.8 mL ethanol and maintained at roomtemperature for 12 hours. The reaction was concentrated in vacuo anddried under high vacuum at 0.2 Torr. The crude material was thendissolved in 2.5 mL ethanol and stirred with 0.8 g sodium bicarbonatefor 30 minutes at room temperature. The resulting suspension was thenfiltered through a 0.2 um nylon syringe tip filter. The solid sodiumbicarbonate was washed with ethanol three times using 0.5 mL of ethanolfor each wash and filtered. The combined filtrate was concentrated. Theresulting crude oil was dissolved in 3.0 mL methanol and 0.12 g sodiumtetraphenylborate (0.35 mmol, 1 equiv) in 1.0 mL methanol was added dropwise while stirring vigorously. The mixture was cooled to 4° C. in arefrigerator. The methanol was then decanted, and the solid was rinsedwith methanol three times using 0.25 mL of methanol for each rinse anddried under high vacuum at 0.2 Torr to obtain 0.16 g2-(4-(dimethylamino)-2,6-diisopropylphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate (0.26 mmol, a 73% yield) as a dark brown solid.

Example 9

A 30 μM solution of Compound 6 in acetonitrile was prepared by adding 99μL of a stock solution of 3.04 mM Compound 6 in methanol to 10 mL ofacetonitrile. An initial fluorescence emission spectrum of the solutionwas obtained and is illustrated by curve (i) in FIG. 1A.

A series of approximately 13.8 μL aliquots of trifluoroacetic acid (TFA)were then added to the 30 μM solution of Compound 6 until a totalconcentration of 60.0 mM of TFA was present in the solution. (The totalamount of TFA present in the solution corresponded to 2000 equivalentsof acid per equivalent of Compound 6.) The fluorescence emissionspectrum of the resulting solution was obtained and is illustrated bycurve (ii) in FIG. 1A. Compound 6 was observed to exhibit an increase inthe emission intensity at λ_(em,max)=405 nm and a decrease in emissionintensity at λ_(em,max)=565 nm as the amount of acid in the systemincreased.

A base, i.e., 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBU), was then addedto the solution to neutralize the acid until a concentration of 90 mMDBU was obtained. The fluorescence emission spectrum of the resultingsolution was obtained and is illustrated by curve (iii) in FIG. 1A. Thefluorescence emission intensity at λ_(em,max)=565 nm increased as theamount of base present in the system increased and the fluorescenceemission intensity at λ_(em,max)=405 nm decreased as the amount of basepresent in the system increased, which reflected Compound 6'sratiometric response to the changing base concentration in acetonitrile.

Example 10

A 30 μM solution of Compound 7 in acetonitrile was prepared by adding 84μL of a stock solution of 3.58 mM Compound 7 in methanol to 10 mL ofacetonitrile. The emission spectrum of the solution was then obtainedand is illustrated by curve (i) in FIG. 1B. Compound 7 was essentiallynon-emissive in the acetonitrile (i.e., Compound 7 exhibited a quantumyield (Φ_(F))=0.06% when exited at 340 nm).

A series of approximately 13.8 μL aliquots of TFA were then added to the30 μM solution of Compound 7 until a total concentration of 60.0 mM TFAwas present in the solution (which corresponded to 2000 equivalents ofacid per equivalent of Compound 7). The fluorescence emission spectrumof the solution was obtained and is illustrated by curve (ii) in FIG.1B. The solution exhibited an approximately 700-fold increase in cyanfluorescent intensity, i.e., Compound 7 exhibited a maximum fluorescenceemission λ_(em,max) at 450 nm and an intensity of Φ_(F)=42%. Compound 7thus exhibited a turn-on signaling function when acid was present in thesolution and a turn-off signaling function in neat acetonitrile.

After the 60 mM TFA concentration was achieved, DBU was gradually addedto the solution until a total concentration of 90 mM DBU was present inthe solution. The fluorescence spectrum of the solution was obtained andis illustrated by curve (iii) in FIG. 1B. The fluorescence intensityemission returned to zero.

Example 11

A series of eleven samples were prepared by adding Compound 6 to aseries of vessels that included buffered water at 298 K. The water ineach vessel had a different pH such that the pH of each sample rangedfrom 2.5 to 7.5. The emission spectrum for each sample was obtained. Theresults are illustrated by the plot in FIG. 2A. Compound 6 was observedto exhibit an increase in the emission intensity at =400 nm and adecrease in emission intensity at λ_(em,m)=580 nm as the pH of thesystem decreased from 7.5 to 2.5, which reflects Compound 6'sratiometric response to changing pH in water.

Example 12

A series of eleven samples were prepared by adding Compound 7 to aseries of vessels that included buffered water at 298 K. The water ineach vessel had a different pH such that the pH of the samples rangedfrom 2.5 to 7.5. The emission spectrum for each sample was obtained.Compound 7 was essentially non-emissive at pH 7.5 in water, butexhibited an increase in emission intensity at λ_(em,max)=450 nm as thepH of the system decreased from 7.5 to 2.5, which reflects Compound 7'sturn-on response to changing pH in water. The results are illustrated inthe plot of FIG. 2B.

The sigmoidal response of fluorescence intensity of Compound 6 at 400 nmversus pH and at 580 nm versus pH is illustrated by the plot in FIGS. 3Aand 3B. The sigmoidal response of fluorescence intensity of Compound 7at 400 nm versus pH illustrated by the plot in FIG. 4

Non-linear regression of the sigmoidal response of fluorescenceintensity versus pH was calculated according to the formula Method forDetermining pK_(a) and provided a plC_(a)=5.0 for Compound 6 andpK_(a)=4.4 for Compound 7.

Example 13A

The fluorescence emission spectrum of 10 μM Compound 2 in water having apH of 7.5 was obtained and demonstrated that Compound 2 exhibited anemission maxima at λ_(em)=550 nm at pH=7.5 in water, as illustrated bythe flatter curved line in FIG. 5A. The pH of the system wassubsequently decreased to pH=2.5 and Compound 2 exhibited strongfluorescence at λ_(em)=360-375 nm.

The fluorescence emission spectrum of 5 μM Compound 8 in water having apH of 7.5 was obtained and is illustrated by the generally flat line inFIG. 5B, which demonstrates that Compound 8 exhibited fluorescencequenching in water having a pH of 7.5. The fluorescence emissionspectrum of Compound 8 in water having a pH of 2.5 was also obtained andis illustrated by the curved line with a peak at 360 nm in FIG. 5B.Compound 8 exhibited an increase in emission intensity at λem,max=360 nmin an acidic environment.

This demonstrates the ICT-type emission of Compound 2 and PET-typerelaxation of Compound 8, which can be controlled reversibly bystraightforward acid-base chemistry.

Example 13B

The fluorescence emission spectrum of Compound 8 in neat acetonitrilewas obtained and is illustrated by the generally flat line in FIG. 6A,which demonstrates that Compound 8 exhibited fluorescence quenching inneat acetonitrile. An aliquot of 50 μL of trifluoroacetic acid was thenadded to the system, and the fluorescence emission spectrum was obtainedand is illustrated by the curved line with a peak at 360 nm in FIG. 6A.Compound 8 exhibited an increase in emission intensity at λem,max=360 nmin an acidic environment in acetonitrile.

The fluorescence emission spectrum of Compound 2 in neat acetonitrilehaving a pH of 7.5 was obtained and demonstrated that Compound 2exhibited an emission maxima at λ_(em)=550 nm at pH=7.5 in water, asillustrated by the flatter curved line in FIG. 6B. The pH of the systemwas subsequently decreased to pH=2.5 and Compound 2 exhibited strongfluorescence at λ_(em)=360-375 nm.

Example 14

Compound 6 was placed in the series of organic solvents at aconcentration of 30 μM, excited with radiation at 360 nm, and monitoredfor fluorescence emission. The organic solvent, intensity offluorescence emission (ET), and maximum emission wavelength in nm andcm⁻¹, are set forth below in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Solvent ET (30) Wavelength (nm) wavenumber (cm⁻¹) Hexane 31 56117825.31 Benzene 34.3 567 17636.68 Toluene 33.9 568 17605.63Tetrahydrofuran 37.4 541 18484.29 Chloroform 39.1 533 18761.73Dichloromethane 40.7 535 18691.59 Acetonitrile 45.6 559 17889.09Dimethylsulfoxide 45.1 567 17636.68 Water 63.1 576 17361.11

Example 15 Compound 9

Compound 9, i.e.,2-butyl-5-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate

was prepared according to General Procedure (A) For PreparingImidazo[1,5-a]pyridine Fluorophores: where the picolinaldehyde was6-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl) picolinaldehyde, and the primary amine wasbutylamine. The procedure was modified from the general procedure byusing by using two equivalents of 3 M hydrochloric acid in ethanol, aswell as by running the reaction in an ethanol:chloroform mixture (1:1).The workup was modified by dissolving the crude material in anacetonitrile ethanol mixture (2:1) and stirring with an excess of solidsodium bicarbonate to remove excess acid. The bicarbonate was removed byfiltration through a 0.2 μm nylon syringe tip filter. Thetetraphenylborate salt was obtained by following through salt metathesiswith sodium tetraphenylborate following the general procedure.

Example 16 Compound 10

Compound 10, i.e.,5-(1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride

was prepared according to the General Procedure For PreparingImidazo[1,5-a]pyridine Triazole Compounds: where the azide was4-azido-N,N-diethylaniline, the amine wasN¹,N¹-dimethylbenzene-1,4-diamine, and the copper source was copper (I)bromide dimethyl sulfide. The procedure was modified from the generalprocedure by using the bis-hydrochloric acid salt of the amine insteadof 3 M hydrochloric acid in ethanol. The procedure was further modifiedby addition one equivalent of sodium hydroxide at the time of azide andcopper addition.

Compound 10 was placed in neat acetonitrile and its emission spectrumwas monitored as trifluoroacetic acid was added to the acetonitrile inincremental amounts to achieve a solution that included an acidconcentration ranging from 0 to 0.2 M. After each acid addition thesample was excited with radiation of a wavelength 340 nm, and itsfluorescence emission spectrum was monitored. The results areillustrated in FIG. 7A.

The solution of Compound 10 in acetonitrile was titrated withtrifluoroacetic acid (TFA). The stepwise addition of TFA showed twostage transitions. The first stage, which occurred with the addition ofthe initial aliquots of TFA, was a slight increase intensity at 580 nm,as illustrated in FIG. 7A. As more TFA was added to the system, a secondtransition occurred in which the emission at 580 nm began to decreaseand as the emission at 400 nm began to increase, as illustrated in FIG.7B. A plot of the emission intensity at 580 nm versus pH and at 400 nmversus pH is illustrated in FIG. 7C.

Example 17 Compound 11

Compound 11, i.e.,2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(p-tolyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride

was prepared according to the General Procedure For PreparingImidazo[1,5-a]pyridine Triazole Compounds: where the azide was1-azido-4-methylbenzene, the amine wasN¹,N¹-dimethylbenzene-1,4-diamine, and the copper source was copper (I)bromide dimethyl sulfide. The procedure was modified from the generalprocedure by using the bis-hydrochloric acid salt of the amine insteadof 3 M hydrochloric acid in ethanol. The procedure was further modifiedby addition one equivalent of sodium hydroxide at the time of azide andcopper addition.

Compound 12, i.e.,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(p-tolyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,

was prepared according to the General Procedure For PreparingImidazo[1,5-a]pyridine Triazole Compounds: where the azide was1-azido-4-methylbenzene, the amine was N¹,N¹-diethylbenzene-1,4-diamine,and the copper source was copper (I) bromide dimethyl sulfide. Theprocedure was modified from the general procedure by using thebis-hydrochloric acid salt of the amine instead of 3 M hydrochloric acidin ethanol. The procedure was further modified by addition oneequivalent of sodium hydroxide at the time of azide and copper addition.

Compounds 10, 11, and 12 were each individually added, at aconcentration of 30 μM, to water having a pH=7.5 and the emissionspectra of each were obtained. At pH=7.5, the compounds exhibitedessentially no fluorescence emission at 600 nm or at 400 nm. As the pHwas decreased from 7.5 to 2.5 in 0.5 pH unit increments, fluorescenceemission at 600 nm remained relatively nonexistent and the intensity ofthe fluorescence emission at 400 nm increased in correlation to thedecrease in pH. FIG. 8A illustrates the emission properties of Compound12. The emission properties illustrated in the plot of FIG. 8A are alsorepresentative of the emission properties exhibited by Compounds 10 and11.

Compounds 10, 11, and 12 were then each individually added, at aconcentration of 30 μM, to acetonitrile and the emission spectrum ofeach was monitored. The compounds emitted at 600 nm with an intensity ofabout 7.57×10⁵ arbitrary units (a.u.) in neat acetonitrile. When 50 μLtrifluoroacetic acid was added to the acetonitrile, the compoundsexhibited no emission at 600 nm but emitted at 400 nm with an intensityof 1.34×10⁶ a.u. FIG. 8B illustrates the emission properties of Compound12. The emission properties illustrated in the plot of FIG. 8B are alsorepresentative of the emission properties exhibited by Compounds 10 and11.

Example 18A

Compound 12 was placed in water and the intensity of its fluorescenceemission at 600 nm was monitored as the concentration of acetonitrilewas increased from 0 volume to volume (v/v) % to 100 v/v % in incrementsof 10 v/v %. As the acetonitrile concentration increased, acorresponding increase in fluorescence intensity occurred (from 7.81×10³a.u. to 6.48×10⁵ a.u.), as illustrated in the plots of FIGS. 9A and 9B.

Example 18B

Compound 12 was added to an aqueous solution of sodium dodecylsulfate(SDS) and monitored for fluorescence emission at 600 nm. Compound 12exhibited a similar increase in fluorescence emission intensity withincreasing SDS concentration as seen in Example 14 with increasingacetonitrile concentration.

Example 19 Compound 13

Compound 13, i.e.,5-(1-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-(p-tolyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,

was prepared according to the General Procedure For PreparingImidazo[1,5-a]pyridine Triazole Compounds: where the azide was4-azido-N,N-dimethylaniline, the amine was p-toluidine, and the coppersource was copper (I) bromide dimethyl sulfide.

Example 20 Compound 14

Compound 14, i.e.,5-(1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-(p-tolyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,

was prepared according to the General Procedure For PreparingImidazo[1,5-a]pyridine Triazole Compounds: where the azide was4-azido-N,N-diethylaniline, the amine was p-toluidine, and the coppersource was copper (I) bromide dimethyl sulfide.

Example 21 Compound 15

Compound 15, i.e., 2-butyl-5-ethynyl-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,

was prepared according to the General Procedure General Procedure (A)For Preparing Imidazo[1,5-a]pyridine Fluorophores: where thepicolinaldehyde was 2-ethynyl picolinaldehyde, and the primary amine wasn-butylamine. The procedure was modified from the general procedure byusing the bis-hydrochloric acid salt of the amine instead of 3 Mhydrochloric acid in ethanol.

Example 22 Compound 16

Compound 16, i.e.,2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-ethynyl-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,

was prepared according to the General Procedure General Procedure (A)For Preparing Imidazo[1,5-a]pyridine Fluorophores: where thepicolinaldehyde was 2-ethynyl picolinaldehyde, and the primary amine wasN¹,N¹-dimethylbenzene-1,4-diamine. The procedure was modified from thegeneral procedure by using the bis-hydrochloric acid salt of the amineinstead of 3 M hydrochloric acid in ethanol. The workup was modified bydissolving crude material in an acetonitrile ethanol mixture (2:1) andstirring with an excess of solid sodium bicarbonate to remove excessacid. The bicarbonate was removed by filtration through a 0.2 um nylonsyringe tip filter.

Example 23 Compound 17

Compound 17, i.e.,5-(1-benzyl-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-butyl-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,

was prepared according to the General Procedure For PreparingImidazo[1,5-a]pyridine Triazole Compounds: where the azide wasbenzylazide, the amine was n-butylamine, and the copper source wascopper (I) bromide dimethyl sulfide.

Example 24 Compound 18

Compound 18, i.e.,2-butyl-5-(1-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,

was prepared according to the General Procedure For PreparingImidazo[1,5-a]pyridine Triazole Compounds: where the azide was4-azido-N,N-dimethylaniline, the amine was n-butylamine, and the coppersource was copper (I) bromide dimethyl sulfide.

Example 25 Compound 19

Compound 19, i.e.,2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,

was prepared according to the General Procedure For PreparingImidazo[1,5-a]pyridine Triazole Compounds: where the azide was1-azido-4-methoxybenzene, the amine wasN¹,N¹-dimethylbenzene-1,4-diamine, and the copper source was copper (I)bromide dimethyl sulfide. The procedure was modified from the generalprocedure by using the bis-hydrochloric acid salt of the amine insteadof 3 M hydrochloric acid in ethanol. The procedure was further modifiedby addition one equivalent of sodium hydroxide at the time of azide andcopper addition.

Example 26 Compound 20

Compound 20, i.e.,2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,

was prepared according to the General Procedure For PreparingImidazo[1,5-a]pyridine Triazole Compounds: where the azide was1-azido-4-(trifluoromethyl)benzene, the amine wasN¹,N¹-dimethylbenzene-1,4-diamine, and the copper source was copper (I)bromide dimethyl sulfide. The procedure was modified from the generalprocedure by using the bis-hydrochloric acid salt of the amine insteadof 3 M hydrochloric acid in ethanol. The procedure was further modifiedby addition one equivalent of sodium hydroxide at the time of azide andcopper addition.

Example 27 Compound 21

Compound 21, i.e.,5-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,

was prepared according to the General Procedure Procedure (A) ForPreparing Imidazo[1,5-a]pyridine Fluorophores: where the picolinaldehydewas 6-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)picolinaldehyde, and the primary aminewas 4-methoxyanaline. The procedure was modified from the generalprocedure by using two equivalents of 3 M hydrochloric acid in ethanol,as well as by running the reaction in an ethanol:chloroform mixture(1:1). The workup was modified by dissolving the crude material in anacetonitrile ethanol mixture (2:1) and stirring with an excess of solidsodium bicarbonate to remove excess acid. The bicarbonate was removed byfiltration through a 0.2 μm nylon syringe tip filter. Thetetraphenylborate salt was obtained by following through salt metathesiswith sodium tetraphenylborate following the general procedure.

Compounds 6, 7, 9, 11-14 and 21 were analyzed according to: the Methodfor Obtaining Ultraviolet-Visible Light Spectrum to obtain the maximumabsorbance wavelength (λ_(abs,max)), the Method for ObtainingFluorescence Emission Spectrum to obtain the maximum emission wavelength(λ_(em,max)), and the Method for Determining Quantum Yield (Φ_(F)) inthe solvent and with the counter ion indicated in Table 3.

The compounds included hydrogen at each position that is not otherwisespecified. Where the groups are specified, they are specified withreference to the following structure:

The compounds were present in the specified solvent at a concentrationof 30 μM unless otherwise specified.

TABLE 3 Posi- Posi- tion tion of of λ_(abs, max) λ_(em, max) Com- GroupGroup Counter □_(F) Abs Em pound Solvent 1 Group 1 2 Group 2 Ion % (nm)(nm) 7 MeCN 1

2

Cl⁻ 0 340 NA 7 MeCN + 13.8 uL TFA 1

2

Cl⁻ 57 340 450 7 H₂O pH = 7.5 1

2

Cl⁻ 0 340 NA 7 H₂O pH = 2.5 1

2

Cl⁻ 42 340 450 6 MeCN 1

2

Cl⁻ 59 350 565 6 MeCN + 13.8 uL TFA 1

2

Cl⁻ 49 350 405 6 H₂O 1

2

Cl⁻ 16 350 380 6 H₂O pH = 2.5 1

2

Cl⁻ 31 350 400 9 MeCN 2 —CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₃ 5

BPh₄ ⁻ 75 350 490 21 MeCN 2

5

BPh₄ ⁻ 10 360 540 13 MeCN 2

5

Cl⁻ 0 340 NA 13 MeCN + 50 μL TFA 2

5

Cl⁻ 67 340 410 13 H₂O pH = 7.5 2

5

Cl⁻ 0 340 NA 13 H₂O pH = 2.5 2

5

Cl⁻ 59 340 405 14 MeCN 2

5

Cl⁻ 0 340 NA 14 MeCN + excess TFA 2

5

Cl⁻ 64 340 410 14 H₂O pH = 7.5 2

5

Cl⁻ 0 340 NA 14 H₂O pH = 2.2 2

5

Cl⁻ 53 340 405 12 MeCN 2

5

Cl⁻ 30 340 600 12 MeCN + 50 μL TFA 2

5

Cl⁻ 57 340 400 12 H₂O pH = 7.5 2

5

Cl⁻ 0 340 NA 12 H₂O pH = 2.2 2

5

Cl⁻ 66 340 400 11 MeCN 2

5

Cl⁻ 35 400 605 11 MeCN + 50 μL TFA 2

5

Cl⁻ 55 340 405 11 H₂O pH = 7.5 2

5

Cl⁻ 0 340 NA 11 H₂O pH = 2.5 2

5

Cl⁻ 29 340 400 MeCN = acetonitrile H₂O = water TFA = trifluoroaceticacid

All patents and other documents referred to herein are incorporatedherein by reference.

Other embodiments are within the claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of detecting a proton in a sample, themethod comprising: contacting the sample with a proton sensor to form amixture; exposing the mixture to radiation to obtain an irradiatedmixture; monitoring the florescence emission of the irradiated mixture,the proton sensor comprising a compound with an imidazo[1,5-α]pyridiniumion core of the structure of formula (I):

wherein R₁ is alkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, glycoalkyl, haloalkyl, heteroaryl,heterocyclyl, or cycloalkyl, and when R₁ is aryl, heteroaryl,heterocyclyl, or cycloalkyl, R₁ optionally is substituted with at leastone R₄, R₂ is H, alkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, carbonyl, cycloalkyl,cycloalkoxy, ether, thioether, halogen, haloalkyl, heteroaryl, orheterocyclyl, and when R₂ is aryl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl orcycloalkyl, R₂ optionally is substituted with at least one R₄, R₃ is

H, alkyl, alkoxy, alkenyl alkenyloxy, alkynyl, alkynoxy, amide, amidino,amine, aryl, arylalkyl, azido, azo, carbamate, carbamide, carbonyl,carboxamido, carboxy, cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, ether, thioether,halogen, haloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl, hydrazine, imino, nitro,phosphate, sulfate, sulfonamide, sulfonyl, sulfide, or thiocarbonyl, andwhen R₃ is alkenyl, alkenoxy, alkynyl, alkynoxy, aryl, heteroaryl,heterocyclyl or cycloalkyl, R₃ optionally is substituted with at leastone R₄, each R₄ is independently H, alkyl, alkoxy, alkenyl, alkenoxy,alkynyl, alkynoxy, amide, amidino, amino, aryl, arylalkyl, azido, azo,carbamate, carbamide, carbonyl, carboxamido, carboxy, cycloalkyl,cycloalkoxy, cyano, ether, thioether, halogen, haloalkyl, heteroaryl,heterocyclyl, hydrazine, imino, nitro, phosphate, sulfate, sulfonamide,sulfonyl, sulfide, or thiocarbonyl, each R₅ is independently H, aryl,heteroaryl, ether, thioether, alkyl, alkenyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl,haloalkyl, heteroaryl, or heterocyclyl, and when R₅ is alkenyl, aryl,heteroaryl, heterocyclyl or cycloalkyl, R₅ optionally is substitutedwith at least one R4, X⁻ is a counter ion, and n is an integer from 1 to4, wherein at least one of R₁, R₂ and R₃ comprises a) a heteroarylcomprising a heteroatom comprising at least one pair of electronsconjugated to the imidazo[1.5-α]pyridinium ion core, the heteroatombeing selected from the group consisting of nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur,and phosphorus, b) an aryl comprising a substituent comprising aheteroatom comprising at least one pair or electrons conjugated to thearyl, the heteroatom being selected from the group consisting ofnitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorous, or c) a combination of a) andb).
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein when fluorescence emission isdetected, the method further comprises correlating the presence offluorescence emission with at least one of the presence of a proton inthe sample, the location of a proton in the sample, and theconcentration of a proton in the system.
 3. The method of claim 1,further comprising correlating the emitted fluorescence to the pH of thesample.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein R₁ is C₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkoxy, or phenylC₁₋₄ dialkylamine, R₂ is H, C₁₋₄alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkoxy, or phenylC₁₋₄ dialkylamine,and R₃ is H, C₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkoxy, orphenylC₁₋₄ dialkylamine.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein R₅ is

each Z is independently CH or N, and each R₆ is independently alkyl,alkoxy, amine, aryl, heteroaryl, halo, haloalkyl, hydrogen, nitro,carboxy, ester, ether, thioether, phosphate, sulfate, sulfonamide,sulfonyl, sulfide, or thiocarbonyl, optionally substituted with at leastone R₄.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the compound has the formula


7. The method of claim 6, wherein R₁ is C₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkyl,phenylC₁₋₄ alkoxy, or phenylC₁₋₄ dialkylamine, R₂ is H, C₁₋₄ alkyl,phenylC₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkoxy, or phenylC₁₋₄ dialkylamine, and R₃is H, C₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkyl, phenylC₁₋₄ alkoxy, or phenylC₁₋₄dialkylamine.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the compound is selectedfrom the group consisting of2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumhexafluorophosphate,2-butyl-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-ium chloride,2-butyl-1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(dimethylamino)-2,6-diisopropylphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,5-(1-benzyl-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-butyl-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,2-butyl-5-(1-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,5-(1-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-(p-tolyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,5-(1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-(p-tolyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride, 5-(1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,5-(1-(4-((diethylamino)methyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-5-ethynyl-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-ethynyl-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,5-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,2-butyl-5-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-3-(pyridin-2-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumhydrogensulfate,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumhydrogensulfate,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(p-tolyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(p-tolyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-butyl-5-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate, and5-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate.
 9. A method of determining a property of a system,the method comprising: contacting the system with a fluorophorecomprising a compound with an imidazo[1,5-α]pyridinium ion core of thestructure of formula (I):

wherein R₁ is alkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, glycoalkyl, haloalkyl, heteroaryl,heterocyclyl, or cycloalkyl, and when R₁ is aryl, heteroaryl,heterocyclyl, or cycloalkyl, R₁ optionally is substituted with at leastone R₄, R₂ is H, alkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, carbonyl, cycloalkyl,cycloalkoxy, ether, thioether, halogen, haloalkyl, heteroaryl, orheterocyclyl, and when R₂ is aryl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl orcycloalkyl, R₂ optionally is substituted with at least one R₄, R₃ is

H, alkyl, alkoxy, alkenyl alkenyloxy, alkynyl, alkynoxy, amide, amidino,amine, aryl, arylalkyl, azido, azo, carbamate, carbamide, carbonyl,carboxamido, carboxy, cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, ether, thioether,halogen, haloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl, hydrazine, imino, nitro,phosphate, sulfate, sulfonamide, sulfonyl, sulfide, or thiocarbonyl, andwhen R₃ is alkenyl, alkenoxy, alkynyl, alkynoxy, aryl, heteroaryl,heterocyclyl or cycloalkyl, R₃ optionally is substituted with at leastone R₄, each R₄ is independently H, alkyl, alkoxy, alkenyl, alkenoxy,alkynyl, alkynoxy, amide, amidino, amino, aryl, arylalkyl, azido, azo,carbamate, carbamide, carbonyl, carboxamido, carboxy, cycloalkyl,cycloalkoxy, cyano, ether, thioether, halogen, haloalkyl, heteroaryl,heterocyclyl, hydrazine, imino, nitro, phosphate, sulfate, sulfonamide,sulfonyl, sulfide, or thiocarbonyl, each R₅ is independently H, aryl,heteroaryl, ether, thioether, alkyl, alkenyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl,haloalkyl, heteroaryl, or heterocyclyl, and when R₅ is alkenyl, aryl,heteroaryl, heterocyclyl or cycloalkyl, R₅ optionally is substitutedwith at least one R4, X⁻ is a counter ion, and n is an integer from 1 to4, wherein at least one of R₁, R₂ and R₃ comprises: a) a heteroarylcomprising a heteroatom comprising at least one pair of electronsconjugated to the imidazo[1,5-α]pyridinium ion core, the heteroatombeing selected from the group consisting of nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur,and phosphorus, b) an aryl comprising a substituent comprising aheteroatom comprising at least one pair or electrons conjugated to thearyl, the heteroatom being selected from the group consisting ofnitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorous, or c) a combination of a) andb), to form a contacted system; exposing the contacted system toradiation to obtain an irradiated system; and monitoring thefluorescence emission of the irradiated system.
 10. The method of claim9, wherein when fluorescence emission is detected, the method furthercomprises correlating the wavelength of fluorescence emission with atleast one of the presence of a cation in the system, the location of acation in the system, the concentration of a cation in the system, theidentity of a cation in the system, and the presence of a hydrophobiccomponent in the system.
 11. The method of claim 9, wherein the compoundis selected from the group consisting of2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumhexafluorophosphate, 2-butyl-1-(p-tolyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtertraphenylborate,2-butyl-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-ium chloride,2-butyl-1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(dimethylamino)-2,6-diisopropylphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,5-(1-benzyl-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-butyl-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,2-butyl-5-(1-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,5-(1-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-(p-tolyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,5-(1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-(p-tolyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,5-(1-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,5-(1-(4-((diethylamino)methyl)phenyl)-1H-1,23-triazol-4-yl)-2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-5-ethynyl-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride, 2-butyl-5-ethynyl-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-ium chloride,2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-ethynyl-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,5-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,2-butyl-5-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-3-(pyridin-2-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumhydrogensulfate, 1-phenyl-2-(p-tolyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumhexafluorophosphate,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumhydrogensulfate,2-(4-(diethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(p-tolyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride, and2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-5-(1-(p-tolyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumchloride,2-butyl-5-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate,5-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-iumtetraphenylborate, and combinations thereof.
 12. The method of claim 9,wherein R₁ is aryl.
 13. The method of claim 9, wherein R₅ and R₁ arearyl and at least one of R₁ and R₅ is arylamine.
 14. The method of claim9, wherein R₅ is arylamine and R₁ is arylamine.
 15. The method of claim9, wherein the compound has the formula


16. The method of claim 15, wherein R₁ is aryl.
 17. The method of claim15, wherein R₅ and R₁ are aryl and at least one of R₁ and R₅ isarylamine.
 18. The method of claim 15, wherein R₁ is arylamine.
 19. Themethod of claim 15, wherein R₅ and R₁ are arylamine.
 20. The method ofclaim 9, wherein the at least one of R₁, R₂ and R₃ is phenyl(diaceticacid)amine, phenyl(dimethylpyridyl)amine,phenyl(methylpyridyl)(methylthiophene)amine, a phenyl substituted with acrown ether or a phenyl substituted with an aza-crown ether.
 21. Amethod of detecting a cation, the method comprising: the method of claim9, wherein the fluorophore is a cation sensor, the cation sensorcomprising at least two first substituents capable of donating a pair ofelectrons to a first cation and at least two second substituents capableof donating a pair of electrons to a second cation, the second cationbeing different from the first cation.
 22. The method of claim 21,wherein the first cation is selected from the group consisting of Ca²⁺,Zn²⁺ and Mg²⁺, and the second cation is selected from the groupconsisting of Ca²⁺, Zn²⁺ and Mg²⁺.
 23. A method of detecting a cation,the method comprising: the method of claim 9, wherein at least one ofR₁, R₂, and R₃ comprises phenyl(diacetic acid)amine,phenyl(dimethylpyridyl)amine, phenyl(methylpyridyl)(methylthiophene)amine, a phenyl substituted crown ether, or a phenyl substituted with anaza-crown ether.
 24. A method of detecting a cation, the methodcomprising: the method of claim 9, wherein the fluorophore is a cationsensor, the cation sensor exhibiting a fluorescence response to a cationselected from the group consisting of Ca²⁺, Zn²⁺, Mg²⁺, Ga³⁺, Tb³⁺,La³⁺, Pb³⁺, Hg²⁺, Cd²⁺, Cu²⁺, Ni²⁺, Co²⁺, Fe²⁺, Mn²⁺, Ba²⁺, U²⁺, U³⁺,Sr²⁺, and combinations thereof.
 25. The method of claim 24, wherein thecation sensor exhibits a fluorescence response to at least one of Ca²⁺,Zn²⁺ and Mg²⁺.
 26. A method of detecting a cation, the methodcomprising: the method of claim 9, wherein the fluorophore is a cationsensor, the cation sensor comprising a first cation chelating moietyhaving an affinity for a first cation, and a second cation chelatingmoiety having an affinity for a second cation, the first cation beingdifferent from the second cation.
 27. A method of detecting a change ina system, the method comprising: the method of claim 9, and detecting achange in at least one of the intensity of the fluorescence emission andthe wavelength of fluorescence emission of the irradiated system. 28.The method of claim 27, wherein an increase in the intensity of thefluorescence emission indicates at least one of the presence of a cationin the system and an increase in the concentration of a cation in thesystem.